With the increasing incorporation of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) like solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems, maintaining frequency stability has turned out to be a significant challenge owing to decreased system inertia. Despite numerous developments in Load Frequency Control (LFC), existing solutions largely overlooked the issue of Under Frequency Load Shedding (UFLS) relay failure during rapid frequency decline, which led to widespread blackouts. To address this critical gap, a novel intelligent control framework integrating the Fuzzy Doubleton Parabolic Inference System (FDPIS) and the Proportional Quad-Alpine Integral Derivative (PQAID) controller for UFLS relay failure mitigation and enhanced LFC in Solar-PV systems is proposed. Primarily, the Direct Current (DC) power from the solar module is fed into the DC-DC boost converter and Maximum Power Smoothstep Point Tracking (MPSPT) algorithm. A capacitor bank failure is detected using FDPIS, and voltage stabilization is ensured through a Savitzky-Golay Dynamic Polynomial-Z Voltage Restorer (SGDP-ZVR). To predict electrical load demand accurately, a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model, Deep Dualplus Softshrink Pan–Long Short Term Inverse Parzen Memory (2DSP-LSTIPM), is employed, delivering a high accuracy of 98.98 % with a Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) of 0.002. When demand exceeds thresholds, transmission overload is mitigated using an Inductive Snubber Cubic Circuits–STATCOM (IS2C-STATCOM). The frequency deviation is identified via FDPIS, followed by the Rate Of Change Of Frequency (ROCOF) analysis. If a UFLS relay failure is detected, then the PQAID controller is activated to ensure stable operation. The proposed PQAID achieves a peak time of 1.91 ms, significantly outperforming traditional PID, PI, and PD controllers in transient and overshoot metrics. Simulation results on the HEDGW dataset assess the proposed approach’s robustness and low time complexity. The system demonstrates superior relay fault detection (fuzzification/defuzzification times of 452ms/463ms) and faster rule generation (597 ms) compared to conventional fuzzy systems. Overall, the proposed methodology provides a comprehensive, real-time, and scalable solution for enhancing frequency stability, relay fault mitigation, and load management in solar PV-based smart grids. • Integrates FDPIS and PQAID for real-time UFLS relay failure detection and mitigation in solar PV systems. • Proposes novel 2DSP-LSTIPM deep learning model achieving 98.98 % demand prediction accuracy with RMSE of 0.002. • Introduces SGDP-ZVR for voltage stabilization during capacitor bank faults using Savitzky-Golay filtering. • Deploys IS2C-STATCOM for efficient transmission overload control with fast reactive power regulation. • Enables seamless SCADA/EMS integration via OPC-UA protocol for smart grid compatibility and deployment.
Satapathy et al. (Fri,) studied this question.