Abstract Electrostimulation has emerged as a significant therapeutic and diagnostic tool in modern medicine, physiotherapy, and wearable healthcare technologies. Electrodes play the role of transducer between electrical signals and biological tissues, striving to provide efficacy, comfort, and biocompatibility. This article presents a detailed overview about types of electrodes have been used for electrostimulation (plain or solid fill), their fabrication based on material composition, structural design, and functional applications. It also discusses the evolution of the traditional two-dimensional electrode to the three-dimensional porous electrode structure. Porous electrodes play a significant role in electrostimulation interfaces as they have large surface area, less impedance, improved skin conformability as well as enhanced ion exchange capabilities. These properties help them to create a more uniform current distribution, reduced discomfort, and improved signal accuracy during stimulation, especially in long-term and wearable applications. Moreover, the subtypes of porous electrodes (1 conventional and 2 textrodes), along with their fabrication techniques and categories based on material composition and structural design, are also discussed. This review focuses on the material innovations and fabrication strategies leading to the development of conventional porous electrodes, including 3D printing, electrospinning, laser sintering, templating and gel casting. The various techniques used to introduce porosity in conventional porous electrodes have been comprehensively reviewed. The incorporation of porosity not only improves mechanical flexibility and breathability but also enhances the ability to load and release therapeutic agents, enabling multifunctional applications such as electroceutical wound healing and controlled drug delivery. While the textrode (a scientific notation of textile-based electrodes) being inherently porous, are discussed, its types and fabrication techniques of are also explained. Add on, a detailed analysis was made between the comparative performance of conventional and textile based porous electrodes. The article also highlights recent developments in biodegradable and sustainable porous electrode systems, aligning with the global push towards eco-friendly healthcare solutions.
Ali et al. (Thu,) studied this question.