Designing for Deep Thinking: A Theory-Driven Inquiry into Problem-Chain Teaching in Primary Mathematics

Abstract Background Developing higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) is critical for fostering adaptive and flexible cognitive abilities in children. However, conventional mathematics instruction often neglects the cultivation of complex reasoning and creative problem-solving. This study aimed to design and evaluate a theory-driven instructional model—problem-chain teaching—targeting the enhancement of HOTS in fourth-grade students, grounded in cognitive and educational psychology frameworks. Methods A quasi-experimental design was implemented with 50 fourth-grade students randomly assigned to experimental (problem-chain teaching) and control (conventional teaching) groups. The intervention was informed by inquiry-based learning theory, cognitive load theory, and HOTS developmental models. Pre- and post-intervention assessments measured problem-solving, critical thinking, and creative thinking using validated psychometric instruments. Statistical analyses included paired-sample t-tests and ANCOVA, with effect sizes calculated using Cohen’s d to assess the magnitude of intervention effects. Results Students receiving problem-chain instruction demonstrated significant improvements in all HOTS domains compared to the control group (p 3.0). Notably, creative thinking exhibited the greatest gains. ANCOVA results indicated significant between-group differences favoring the experimental group, with partial η² values exceeding 0.65, suggesting a substantial impact of the intervention. Conclusions The problem-chain teaching model effectively enhanced higher-order cognitive processes in primary school students. These findings highlight the value of integrating cognitive psychology principles into instructional design to promote complex reasoning skills. The study provides a replicable framework for educators seeking to foster critical, creative, and problem-solving abilities in early mathematical learning, contributing to the broader psychological understanding of cognitive skill development in children.