Menstrual exclusions and their psychological impact: A quantitative study on religious and cultural restrictions among women in South India

ABSTRACT Background: Menstruation remains a stigmatized and culturally regulated phenomenon, particularly in South India, where religious and cultural norms impose restrictions on menstruating women. These restrictions, including prohibitions from entering temples and participating in religious rituals, reinforce gender-based discrimination and may have significant psychological consequences. Despite progress in menstrual health awareness, these exclusions persist, necessitating empirical research to understand their prevalence and impact on well-being. Methodology: A cross-sectional survey design was employed, collecting data from 2511 women aged 18–45 across urban, semi-urban, and rural areas in South India. A structured questionnaire assessed demographic factors, experiences of menstrual exclusion, psychological impact (stress, anxiety, and self-esteem), and attitudes toward menstrual restrictions. Data were analyzed using SPSS, with descriptive statistics and inferential tests applied to determine associations between menstrual restrictions and psychological distress. Results: Findings reveal that 70.4% of respondents have faced menstrual restrictions, with higher prevalence in semi-urban and rural areas. Younger age groups (18–34) reported greater exposure to these restrictions. Temple entry bans affected 39%–47% of respondents, with exclusion from religious rituals more pronounced in rural and semi-urban settings. A significant proportion (69.7%) experienced moderate-to-extreme distress due to menstrual restrictions, whereas 57% reported some degree of social exclusion. While 40.7% of respondents opposed menstrual restrictions, 31.4% believed they were justified, indicating persistent cultural reinforcement. Conclusion: Menstrual restrictions remain a widespread issue in South India, with significant psychological consequences, particularly for younger women and those in rural settings. The findings highlight the need for awareness campaigns, policy interventions, and social advocacy to challenge discriminatory practices and promote menstrual inclusivity. Addressing menstrual stigma through education and community engagement is essential for fostering gender equity and improving the well-being of menstruating individuals.