What type of study is this?

This is a Cross-sectional study (also classified as: Latent class analysis, Logistic regression).

September 10, 2025Open Access

Association of childhood socioeconomic status and health with depressive symptoms in later life: a cross-sectional latent class analysis of the 2014/2015 Indonesia Family Life Survey

Key Points

Higher odds of depressive symptoms are associated with greater childhood disadvantage, impacting long-term mental health.
Adjusted odds ratios indicate significant relationships, showing OR 1.39 for high disadvantage and OR 1.66 for moderate disadvantage.
Cross-sectional latent class analysis utilized to cluster childhood socioeconomic status and health factors.
Findings highlight the importance of early interventions in health and education to reduce mental health risks in Indonesia.

Abstract

Objectives While childhood circumstances predict mental health outcomes in high-income countries, evidence from low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) like Indonesia remains scarce. This study examines the long-term association between childhood socioeconomic status (SES), health and depressive symptoms in adulthood, testing the hypothesis that early-life disadvantages increase the odds of depressive symptoms later in life. Design Cross-sectional analysis using latent class analysis to cluster childhood SES/health and logistic regression to assess associations with depressive symptoms. Setting A nationally representative household survey was conducted across 13 provinces in urban and rural areas of Indonesia. Participants 32 085 adults aged 18 years and older from the 2014–2015 Indonesia Family Life Survey. Participants with missing data on childhood circumstances or depressive symptoms were excluded, resulting in a final analytic sample of 29 140 individuals. Outcome measures The primary outcome was depressive symptoms measured using the 10-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, with scores ≥10 indicating clinically significant symptoms. Secondary exposures included latent classes of childhood SES and health (high, moderate and low disadvantage). Analyses adjusted for adult SES, health behaviours, social capital and demographic characteristics. Results Three latent classes emerged: low (64.85%), moderate (5.73%) and high (29.42%) early-life disadvantage. Adjusted logistic regression showed higher odds of depressive symptoms for high (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.28 to 1.50) and moderate disadvantage (OR 1.66, 95% CI 1.48 to 1.87) versus low. Significant covariates included age, education, wealth and social capital (all p<0.05). Conclusions Early-life disadvantages predict depressive symptoms in adulthood in Indonesia, underscoring the need for child-focused interventions (health, education and poverty reduction) to mitigate long-term mental health risks in LMICs. Further research should explore longitudinal mechanisms.

Association of childhood socioeconomic status and health with depressive symptoms in later life: a cross-sectional latent class analysis of the 2014/2015 Indonesia Family Life Survey

Key Points

Abstract

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