New data and insights on the secondary glass workshop of Comacchio (Italy): MgO contents, steatite crucibles and alternatives to recycling

Abstract This study introduces a collection of 33 glass samples, encompassing production indicators (blocks, fluidity tests, drops, cuts and wastes) and finished products (mainly goblets and probably a lamp) dating to the second half of the 7 th century, except for a single more recent specimen (12 th -14 th ). Additionally, a fragment was taken from a crucible bearing a thin layer of glass inside it. This new collection complements the investigation of glass materials from the Comacchio workshop previously analysed by Bertini et al. (2020). Measurements were performed using scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy on all samples and Sr–Nd isotopic analyses on 5 blocks. The results showed how the entire collection can be classified as natron-based silica-soda-lime glass and that the high MgO contents frequently observed are due to contamination with the steatite crucible. Contextually, the hypothesis of using plant ash-based glass mixed with natron-based glass formulated in the previous literature seems to have run out, along with the use of plant ash-based glass itself, further weakened by the very low representativeness of this latter type of glass on the site. The technological investigation further elucidated that recycling may not singularly account for the Comacchio glass technology. Discernible correlations may suggest the introduction of different types of metals, indicating a specialised control over the production process. Notably, the preference for green–blue glass emerges as a distinctive hallmark, underscoring the deliberate pursuit of a specific aesthetic taste. Lastly, the provenance analysis showed that over three-quarters of production was based on semi-finished products from Egypt, while only the remaining quarter came from the Levantine coast.