Radiation safety of ultra‐high dose rate electron accelerators for FLASH radiotherapy

Abstract Background An ultra‐high dose rate (UHDR) electron accelerator for FLASH radiotherapy (RT) produces very intense bremsstrahlung by the interaction of the electron beam with objects both inside and outside of the accelerator. The bremsstrahlung dose per pulse is typically 1–2 orders of magnitude larger than that of conventional RT x‐ray treatment of the same energy, and for electron energies above 10 MeV, the bremsstrahlung produces substantially more induced radioactivity outside the accelerator than for conventional RT. Therefore, a thorough radiation safety assessment is mandatory prior to the operation of a UHDR electron accelerator. Purpose To evaluate the radiation safety of a prototype FLASH‐enabled Varian TrueBeam accelerator and to develop a general framework for assessment of all key radiation safety properties of a UHDR electron accelerator for FLASH RT. Methods Production of bremsstrahlung and induced radioactivity by a UHDR electron accelerator is modeled by various analytical methods. The analytical modeling is compared with National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) bremsstrahlung yield data as well as measurements of primary bremsstrahlung outside the bunker and induced radioactivity of irradiated thick targets for a FLASH‐enabled 16 MeV Varian TrueBeam electron accelerator. In addition, the analytical modeling is complemented by measurements of secondary bremsstrahlung inside/outside the bunker and neutrons at the maze entrance. Results Calculated bremsstrahlung yields deviate maximum 8.5% from NIST data, and all measurements of primary bremsstrahlung and induced radioactivity agree with calculations, validating the analytical tools. In addition, it is found that scattering foil bremsstrahlung dominates primary bremsstrahlung and the main source of secondary bremsstrahlung is the irradiated object outside the accelerator. It follows that primary and secondary bremsstrahlung outside the bunker can be calculated using the same simple formalism as that used for conventional RT. Measured primary bremsstrahlung tenth‐value layers for concrete of the simple formalism are in good agreement with NCRP and IAEA data, while measured secondary bremsstrahlung tenth‐value layers for concrete are considerably lower than NCRP and IAEA data. All calculations and measurements form a general framework for assessment of all key radiation safety properties of a UHDR electron accelerator. Conclusions The FLASH‐enabled Varian TrueBeam accelerator is safe for normal operation (max. 99 pulses per irradiation) in a bunker designed for at least 15 MV conventional x‐ray treatment unless the UHDR workload is much larger than the x‐ray workload. A similar finding applies to other UHDR electron accelerators. However, during beam tuning, radiation survey, or other tests with extended irradiation time, the UHDR workload may become very large, necessitating the implementation of additional safety measures.