3D ground-penetrating radar to characterize near-surface environments: Advances in data analysis and integrated geophysical interpretation

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a widely acknowledged tool for imaging near-surface environments in various geological, hydrological, and sedimentological applications. In complex and heterogeneous settings, applying 3D GPR is crucial to correctly image subsurface architecture and, thus, to prevent misinterpretations. Recent advancements in GPR system design and instrumentation enable the collection of densely sampled 3D GPR datasets with superior resolution, establishing 3D GPR as a standard for near-surface structure imaging. This study showcases the latest developments in analyzing and interpreting 3D GPR datasets. We demonstrate how GPR datasets and derived structural models contribute to a detailed understanding of complex near-surface environments. Using selected case studies, we present integrated interpretation approaches combining 3D GPR data and models, respectively, with the results of 3D electromagnetic induction surveying, 2D electrical resistivity tomography as well as 1D geophysical and geological borehole logging. Such a strategy allows for a more comprehensive and reliable near-surface characterization by integrating detailed 3D structural information with electrical/petrophysical property distributions and geological information, surpassing the limitations of typical 2D single-method interpretation approaches.