Microplastics in ecosystems: ecotoxicological threats and strategies for mitigation and governance

Microplastic (MP) pollution is an emergent global threat with widespread implications for ecological integrity, food security, and public health. These particles, typically smaller than 5 mm, originate from diverse sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris and direct emissions from products and industrial processes. This review critically examines the current understanding of MP sources, environmental distribution, detection technologies, ecotoxicological impacts, and mitigation strategies. Incorporating recent advances—including AI-enhanced detection, microbe-mediated degradation, and circular economy policies—it provides a comprehensive, multidisciplinary synthesis and proposes a roadmap toward microplastic-free ecosystems. It highlights the complex journey of microplastics through various ecosystems, driven by processes such as photolysis, weathering, and microbial activity, and their subsequent transportation via water bodies, soil, and atmospheric deposition. The review emphasizes recent innovations in detection techniques, including hyperspectral imaging, machine learning algorithms, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), which have significantly enhanced the sensitivity and accuracy of microplastic identification across complex environmental matrices. The ecotoxicological impacts of microplastics, including their physical and chemical effects on aquatic organisms and potential for bioaccumulation and trophic transfer, are explored in depth, underscoring the urgency of addressing this global issue. The review discusses advanced mitigation strategies, such as biodegradable alternatives, circular economy approaches, and stringent regulatory measures, which are essential to reduce the environmental burden of microplastics. Integrating scientific innovation with robust policy frameworks is crucial to curb the widespread dispersion of microplastics and mitigate their long-term impacts on ecosystems and human health. This review advances our understanding of microplastic pollution and serves as a call to action for coordinated global efforts to address this pressing environmental challenge.