This study investigates the heatwave hazard and vulnerability in Lahore through Land Surface Temperature (LST) and Urban Heat Island (UHI) strength assessment using cloud-free Landsat 8 satellite images and land use measurements. The study demonstrates how urban development has caused built-up land to rise from 39.21% to 45.72% while vegetation decreased from 56.52% to 52.25% throughout the period (2013–2023). Global warming and urban development together result in a 6.56 °C mean increase of Land Surface Temperature. High-intensity areas of Urban Heat Island zones experienced a growth from 30.75% to 33.91% during the study period. The Heatwave Hazard Index (HHI) demonstrates that severe and extreme heat affects 59.64% of Lahore which substantially compromises both human health and infrastructure. According to the Heatwave Vulnerability Index (HVI) calculations 85.62% of the city area faces severe and extreme risk conditions. The approach is particularly relevant to the progress on climate resilient infrastructure and equitable development, in particular with regard to the SDGs 3, 9, 11, 13, and 15. The study shows that sustainable urban development requires the inclusion of green areas and reflective surfaces and cooling systems to protect people from the high risks of climate change.
Shafiq et al. (Sat,) studied this question.