Prophylactic vaccination reduced annual cumulative FMD incidence by 85%, and combining NSP antibody testing with vaccination reduced incidence by 96% in cattle herds in Thailand from 2016 to 2023.
Foot and mouth disease remains a severe global threat to livestock productivity and international trade, necessitating integrated, regionally tailored mitigation approaches including next-generation vaccines and robust surveillance.
Effect estimate: Reduction in incidence by 85% with vaccination alone; 96% with combined NSP antibody testing and vaccination
Absolute Event Rate: 4% vs 20%
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection that continues to threaten global livestock health, with profound effects on animal productivity, rural livelihoods, food security, and international trade. Caused by the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), the infection comprises seven immunologically distinct serotypes: O, A, C (now considered extinct), Asia1, SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3, with no cross-protection among them. This antigenic diversity complicates vaccine formulation and outbreak control, particularly in endemic regions. Recent resurgences in countries such as South Africa highlight persistent gaps in surveillance and response capacity. This review examines the global synthesis of serotype diversity, transmission dynamics and socioeconomic impacts of foot and mouth disease and control, highlights critical research gaps, and proposes integrated mitigation approaches. Literature was sourced from major academic databases and supplemented with gray literature from relevant international organizations (WOAH, FAO, OIE-WAHIS). Transmission occurs mainly through direct contact with infected animals via saliva, nasal secretions, milk, semen, and vesicular fluid. Indirect and airborne routes also contribute significantly, with the virus surviving for extended periods in cool, moist environments. Contaminated animal products pose further risks to trade and biosecurity. The disease disrupts milk production, impairs mobility, and results in major economic losses. Effective control requires regionally tailored, multifaceted strategies encompassing enhanced biosecurity, next-generation vaccines, robust surveillance systems, and strengthened international collaboration. Integrated interventions against FMD can bolster animal health, food system resilience, and global trade security.
Mabunda et al. (Sun,) conducted a review in Livestock and wild cloven-hoofed animals affected by foot and mouth disease, across multiple global regions including endemic and FMD-free areas (n=3,300). Prophylactic vaccination combined with NSP antibody testing vs. No vaccination or vaccination alone was evaluated on Annual cumulative incidence of foot and mouth disease (Reduction in incidence by 85% with vaccination alone; 96% with combined NSP antibody testing and vaccination). Prophylactic vaccination reduced annual cumulative FMD incidence by 85%, and combining NSP antibody testing with vaccination reduced incidence by 96% in cattle herds in Thailand from 2016 to 2023.