This study examines the comparative associations of Augmented Reality (AR)–based environmental education and local wisdom–based environmental education with pro-environmental behavior among Indonesian youth. Grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior, the study focuses on environmental attitudes as a key mediating mechanism. Data were collected from 282 high school students in Jakarta and Banten, Indonesia, using a structured survey and analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) and Multi-Group Analysis (MGA). The results indicate that local wisdom–based environmental education is positively associated with both environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavior, whereas AR-based environmental education is positively associated with environmental attitudes but is not directly associated with pro-environmental behavior. Instead, the association between AR-based environmental education and pro-environmental behavior is fully mediated by environmental attitudes. The structural model explains a substantial proportion of variance in environmental attitudes (R2 = 0.913) and pro-environmental behavior (R2 = 0.950). MGA results reveal that subgroup differences emerge primarily in the associations between educational interventions and environmental attitudes. Specifically, AR-based environmental education shows stronger associations with environmental attitudes among students in Banten and female students, whereas local wisdom–based environmental education exhibits stronger associations among students in Jakarta, male students, and older students. In contrast, the association between environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavior remains stable across regions, genders, and age groups. These findings suggest that immersive technologies alone may be insufficient to translate learning into behavioral outcomes without alignment with culturally grounded values. As a cross-sectional, non-experimental study, this research contributes to the environmental education literature by integrating cultural and technological dimensions within a TPB-informed framework. Practically, the findings highlight the importance of positioning local wisdom as a foundational element of environmental value formation, with AR serving as a complementary tool to enhance engagement and understanding rather than a stand-alone behavioral intervention.
Safitri et al. (Tue,) studied this question.