What question did this study set out to answer?

The main aim is to quantify changes in water spread areas of surface waters in Srinagar from 2000 to 2020.

March 21, 2026

Remote sensing and GIS approach for estimation of water spread area of surface waters of Srinagar city in Kashmir Himalayan region

Key Points

The main aim is to quantify changes in water spread areas of surface waters in Srinagar from 2000 to 2020.
Utilized multi-temporal LANDSAT imagery and ASTER GDEM for remote sensing analysis.
Applied Dark Object Subtraction for atmospheric correction and geometric alignment of images.
Delineated water bodies using normalized difference water index (NDWI) and refined with MNDWI.
Employed supervised maximum likelihood classification and Otsu thresholding for water classification.
Observed a 21.5% average decline in lake and wetland area from 2000 to 2020.
Noted the steepest area loss in Brari Nambal at 41%, while Dal Lake showed a modest recovery of 1.9% post-2014 flood remediation.
Found a strong correlation (r=0.78, p<0.01) between urban sprawl and water loss, indicating significant environmental impact.

Abstract

AbstractThe present study quantifies decadal changes (2000–2020) in the water spread area of Srinagar’s major surface waters (Dal Lake, Nigeen Lake, Anchar, Gilsar–Khushalsar, Brari Nambal, Nallah Amir Khan, Jhelum River) using multi temporal LANDSAT imagery and ASTER GDEM. Imagery was atmospherically corrected (Dark Object Subtraction) and geometrically aligned; water bodies were delineated via normalized difference water index (NDWI) with a threshold of =0.3, and refined by MNDWI to reduce built up misclassification. Supervised maximum likelihood classification and Otsu thresholding were applied; overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient were assessed against high resolution reference points (n=150), yielding 92.4% accuracy and ?=0.89. Results show a 21.5% average decline in lake and wetland area, with the steepest loss in Brari Nambal (41%) and modest recovery in Dal Lake (+1.9%) post 2014 flood remediation. Correlation with long term precipitation and built up area expansion (derived from 2000–2020) indicates strong links (r=0.78, p<0.01) between urban sprawl and water loss. The study recommend annual NDWI monitoring using Sentinel 2, integration of LULC change detection, and community based conservation under India’s Jal Shakti Abhiyan to mitigate ongoing degradation.

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