Symposium Introduction: The Pedagogical Potential of Exemplar Narratives in Moral Development and Moral Education

This symposium engages the important question of how exemplars might shape the character of learners, focusing on the pedagogical potential of exemplar narratives. In recent years there has been growing interest in the topic of moral exemplars, from educational, philosophical, and psychological perspectives. The pedagogical potential of learning by example has been known since antiquity, though the respect accorded to emulating heroes or saints waned in modernity, where it was deemed antithetical to autonomous reasoning, proof of the “herd mentality,” or even “self-suicide.” Since the turn of the last century, however, learning by example, particularly when it comes to moral education, has once again risen to prominence. This renewed interest has been spurred on in no small measure by the work of two key individuals whose contributions we review as an essential backdrop to this issue: Bryan Warnick and Linda Zagzebski.1 While there are many historical insights concerning the educational importance of exemplars, returning to an interest in the transformative power of moral exemplars in the twenty-first century has brought new insights, critiques, methodologies, and challenges to the fore. Empirical research in psychology and education has shed light on the qualities of role models, and the features of the narratives in which these exemplars are embedded. The focus on narrative is central to consideration of how exemplars might be used in education. Across cultures and throughout history, narratives have been the primary place of encounter between real or imagined heroes and the listeners or readers who might be inspired by their example. As Zagzebski puts it, the “socially recognized procedure” for picking out exemplars is the “telling and re-telling of narratives.”2 Through this symposium we promote two key areas for developing the field going forward. First, while recent work has drawn attention to the importance of exemplars, there has been little direct examination of how exemplar stories influence their readership in terms of moral formation. Second, there is a great deal more scope for promoting our understanding of how exemplar narratives can be used, with appropriate critical reflection, in educational settings. This introduction reviews recent work relating to exemplarist moral education, with sections covering the philosophical contribution of Linda Zagzebski's exemplarist moral theory (EMT), recent work in psychology on dynamics of admiration and emulation, and the important work of Bryan Warnick in the philosophy of education. It will consider the importance of attending to dynamics of narrativity and how exemplar stories function in terms of language, structure, and plot. Finally, we will summarize the contribution of the articles that follow by identifying common themes across the papers in this collection. Recent academic interest in moral exemplars has undoubtedly gained momentum from Zagzebski's EMT. Developed at length in her 2015 Gifford lectures and her 2017 book, titled Exemplarist Moral Theory, Zagzebski proposes a foundationalist moral theory grounded on the admiration of exemplars rather than concepts of duty, rights, or consequences. According to EMT, the moral life is built on the identification of exemplars, whom we recognize through the emotion of admiration, and by reflective examination upon the characteristics of these exemplars that move us and motivate us to follow their example.3 Zagzebski describes EMT as a “map” of moral life rather than a “manual.” That is to say, EMT seeks to provide a conceptual structure that can “simplify, systematize, and justify our moral beliefs and practices” (EMT, 5). Moral exemplars, identified by direct reference through the morally basic emotion of admiration, are at its heart. Zagzebski argues that admiration, honed by ongoing reflection, reliably “detects excellence” when it comes to moral persons (EMT, 2). She contends that experiencing admiration precedes and allows us to apprehend and subsequently name valued qualities: “We can admire a courageous act … in advance of having the concept of courage” (EMT, 60). In terms of its antecedents, EMT is modeled on the semantic theory of Hilary Putnam and Saul Kripke,4 whereby ordinary language users identify natural kind terms (for example, gold or water) by direct reference before descriptive meaning. In other words, that “something like that” is water (pointing to water) comes before a conceptual grasp or description of what water is (i.e., H2O). Zagzebski contends that, similarly, basic moral concepts (good, right, virtue) are defined in relation to exemplars. Hence, “a virtue is a trait we admire in an exemplar,” “a good motive is a motive we admire in an exemplar,” and so on for “right act,” “duty,” and other moral concepts (EMT, 21). For example, “a virtue is a trait that makes an exemplar admirable in a certain respect” (EMT, 21). Zagzebski identifies three kinds of exemplar: the “saint,” who epitomizes charity; the “hero,” who exemplifies courage; and the “sage,” who embodies wisdom. While ancient Greece would “make no sense” without the hero, ancient China would be “incomprehensible” without the sage (EMT, 97). The “saint” prototype arose with Christianity, and while Zagzebski points to exemplifications of modern saints (not without problems, as we will see), she observes that in a post-Christian age, the saint (along with the hero and sage) is disappearing: “A longing to believe that there are exemplars probably still exists, but it coexists with the suspicion that is characteristic of our age” (EMT, 97). There is an elegant simplicity to Zagzebski's theory that resonates with the human experience that “in every era and in every culture there have been supremely admirable persons who show us the upper reaches of human capability, and in doing so, inspire us to expect more from ourselves” (EMT, 1). When we behold exemplars, we experience admiration: “A state consisting of a characteristic feeling of admiring someone or something that appears admirable” (EMT, 34). The state has cognitive and affective elements (we feel it and appraise the person as admirable). Zagzebski recognizes that someone or something could only appear admirable, admitting the possibility of potential misattribution. This is a weak point in the theory that Zagzebski addresses in two ways: first, she argues that the trust that humans place in admiration is basic and entirely rational (EMT, 44); second, she argues that trustworthy, justified admiration is admiration that “survives conscientious reflection” (EMT, 50). However, the strength of Zagzebski's defense on this point is open to question. Lani Watson and Alan Wilson have raised important questions regarding the stability of admiration as morally foundational,5 a critique that has been supported by Zagzebski's extremely unfortunate exaltation of Jean Vanier as her primary example of a moral saint. During the Gifford lectures, Zagzebski repeatedly pointed to the moral saintliness of Vanier, the founder of the international organization L'Arche, elaborating his story in her later book Exemplarist Moral Theory. Vanier was an officer in the navy turned moral philosopher who followed a vocation to care for the intellectually disabled. He established a community north of Paris in 1964, which became the first in a global movement. However, in February 2020, after his death, an internal report published by L'Arche, which was cited in the media thereafter, concluded that Vanier had sexually abused six women in France, over a period of thirty-five years. We are more certain of the identities of certain exemplars than we are of the terms to be defined.… I think that we are more certain of the admirability of Socha and Vanier than we are of the definitions of “courage” and “compassion,” and we are much more certain of the admirability of these exemplars than we are of the definitions of “virtue,” “right act,” “duty,” and so on. (EMT, 103) Notwithstanding this important challenge, there are two aspects of EMT that have been crucial in explaining why the theory has gained traction beyond the limits of philosophical debate. Since Zagzebski grounds EMT in the emotion of admiration, the theory has been taken up by psychologists interested in the effects of admiration (and allied emotional states) on human behavior. Second, and more important for our purposes in this symposium, Zagzebski specifically highlights the importance of narratives. As she puts it, the “socially recognized procedure” for picking out exemplars is the “telling and re-telling of narratives” (EMT, 15). If we feel admiration for an acquired excellence like kindness, we feel contempt for an acquired defect like meanness. Meanness is not simply the absence of kindness. It is an acquired trait that is opposed to kindness. Meanness is a vice — an anti-virtue. But I doubt that there is any such thing as an anti-talent. There is, of course, such a thing as the lack of talent, but normally we do not feel contempt for it. 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