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Internet of Things (IoT) has revolutionized various industries with interconnected smart embedded devices featuring sensors and actuators. However, providing a sustainable power supply for these devices is a significant hurdle. The finite lifespan of traditional batteries necessitates frequent replacements, leading to increased maintenance costs, downtime, and environmental concerns associated with battery disposal. Energy harvesting offers an admirable alternative by converting ambient energy into usable electrical energy, enabling IoT devices to operate autonomously and sustainably, reducing maintenance needs, and enhancing reliability. Despite their diversity, energy harvesters face common limitations, such as variable energy availability, limited power output, and high initial costs. Recognizing these limitations is essential for informed decisions regarding their use in sustainable IoT applications and their communication performance. Due to the lack of a comprehensive and inclusive study in this context, this article gives an extensive survey on energy-harvesting technologies and their applications in IoT. By drawing insights from over 400 recent publications, this article first introduces a taxonomy by categorizing the existing technologies based on their energy sources into five general domains, i.e., photovoltaic, vibration and kinetic, radio frequency, thermoelectric, and chemical and biological. Then, it expands this categorization into 11 subdomains and delves into the working principles of every technology. Besides surveying potential IoT applications, this comprehensive study covers simulation-facilitating mathematical models, pros, cons, and commercial-off-the-shelf modules for each harvesting technology. It also includes evaluative simulations to analyze their output power behavior, focusing on their impact on wireless communication performance. Finally, by discussing the existing research trends, the survey aims to provide informed decision making and foster the development of innovative, sustainable IoT solutions for a green future.
Safaei et al. (Wed,) studied this question.