Should Feminists Clone? And if So, How?

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. In their theory of becoming, Deleuze and Guattari suggest that ‘all becomings are already molecular’ (1987, 272) and that on our way to becoming imperceptible, we must ‘always look for the molecular, or even submolecular, particle with which we are allied’ (1987, 11). In this paper, I use the word molecular both in this Deleuzian sense and in the biological sense pertaining to molecules and subcellular functions. 2. As Braidotti explains: ‘the “Molar” line—that of Being, identity, fixity and potestas—and the “Molecular” line—that of becoming, nomadic subjectivity and potentia—are absolutely not the same … Deleuze defines the Molar/Majority as the standard and the Molecular/Minority as the other in the sense of “the other of the same”’ (2002, 84). 3. In his foreword to Power and Invention (Stengers 1997 Stengers, Isabelle. 1997. Power and invention: Situating science. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Google Scholar), Bruno Latour discusses Stengers’ notion of ‘risk’ as being integral to properly constructed propositions. According to Stengers, although constructions without risk may be politically correct, they may not be CC (cosmopolitically correct) (1997, xiv). Although my effort may not fully measure up, the risk I run by posing the question ‘should feminists clone? ’ reflects my goal to be CC. 4. The panel was held at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto and was sponsored by ‘Biology As If The World Matters’ (BAITWorM). The BAITWorM Network consisted of natural and social scientists committed to interdisciplinary research and teaching. I owe a great deal of gratitude to the organizers and participants of BAITWorM, particularly Linda Muzzin, Peggy Tripp and Leesa Fawcett. 5. The phrase ‘technical, organic and political’ is commonly used by Haraway (1991 Haraway, Donna J. 1991. Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar, 1997 Haraway, Donna J. 1997. ModestWitness@SecondMillenium. FemaleMan©MeetsOncomouse™: Feminism and technoscience. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar). The technical, organic and political also comprise three of the six imploding categories that inform her practice of figuration (1997). 6. For example, see the works of Harding (1991 Harding, Sandra. 1991. Whose science? Whose knowledge? Thinking from women's lives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Google Scholar), Longino (1990 Longino, Helen. 1990. Science as social knowledge. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Crossref, Google Scholar), Keller (1985 Keller, Evelyn Fox. 1985. Reflections on gender and science. Binghamton: Yale University Press. Google Scholar), and Haraway (1991 Haraway, Donna J. 1991. Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar). 7. See, for example, the earlier works of Fausto-Sterling (1985 Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 1985 1992. Myths of gender: Biological theories about women and men. New York: Basic Books. Google Scholar), Hubbard (1990 Hubbard, Ruth. 1990. The politics of women's biology. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Google Scholar), and Spanier (1995 Spanier, Bonnie. 1995. Im/partial science: Gender ideology in molecular biology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Google Scholar). 8. While referring to the politics of identity and the work of Brian Massumi, Braidotti states that ‘strategic mimesis is a positive simulation that does not essentialize an original. The point is to aim at the transformative impact of one's political processes’ (2002, 169). 9. In her elegant fictional story ‘Confessions of a Bioterrorist’, Thompson Cussins (1999 Cussins, Charis Thompson. 1999. Confessions of a bioterrorist: Subject position and reproductive technologies. In Playing dolly: Technocultural formations, fantasies, and fictions of assisted reproduction E. Ann Kaplan and Susan Squier. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Google Scholar) writes about a reproductive biologist who also yearns to reproduce. In this case, however, the resident biologist for the San Diego Zoo yearns to give birth to human–bonobo interspecies offspring. 10. My PhD work was conducted under the supervision of Dr D. D. Belsham at the University of Toronto. With her expertise in reproductive neuroendocrinology she provided guidance and support for my scientific research. I am also grateful to her for teaching me the molecular biology skills needed to practise as a scientist in the laboratory. 11. Haraway has articulated six categories that ‘inform the practice of figuration’ including the ‘technical, organic, political, economic, oneiric and textual’ (1997, 12). 12. This is a derogatory and racist term used to describe an individual from South Asia, derived from the term ‘Pakistani’. 13. The re-visioning of society, where only women reside and reproduction occurs through parthenogenesis, can be found in such novels as Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Herland (1915 1979 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. 1915 1979. Herland. New York: Pantheon Books. Google Scholar), Joanna Russ's The Female Man (1975 Russ, Joanna. 1975. The female man. New York: Bantam Books. Google Scholar), and Suzy McKee Charnas's Motherlines (1978 Charnas, Suzy Mckee. 1978. Motherlines. New York: Putnam Books. Google Scholar). Technologies such as cloning are used for reproduction in novels such as Pamela Sargent's Cloned Lives (1978 Sargent, Pamela. 1978. Cloned lives. New York: Fawcett Press. Google Scholar), Kate Wilhelm's Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang (1976 1998 Wilhelm, Kate. 1976 1998. Where late the sweet birds sang. New York: Orb Books. Google Scholar), and Ursula LeGuin's short story ‘Nine Lives’ (1969 1976 Leguin, Ursula. 1969 1976. Nine lives. In The wind's twelve quarters. New York: Bantam Books. Google Scholar). Some other form of genetic manipulation occurs for the purpose of reproduction in Marge Piercy's Women on the Edge of Time (1976 Piercy, Marge. 1976. Women on the edge of time. New York: Fawcett Crest Books. Google Scholar) and Octavia Butler's Dawn (1987 Butler, Octavia. 1987. Dawn. New York: Warner Books. Google Scholar). 14. I now know that the Rajasthani School of Indian art is divided into many subcategories and the print that my parents displayed must have belonged to either the Mewar or Jaipur style. 15. I was never able to find out the exact contraceptive for which the clinical trial was being conducted, but the patches looked similar to the Ortho Evra patch. The women on the street informed me that they were participating in a government-subsidised family planning incentive program. By participating in the trial, they were provided with food rations and shoes for their children. 16. The relation between George Reeves and Christopher Reeve is only a quasi-patrilineal one, as the two (super) humans only barely shared the same last name. 17. Following his death, Reeve is remembered for his courage, strength and compassion. In fact, for only 10. 00 one can purchase a Christopher Reeve Foundation Superman Tag—with the Superman insignia and all—to pay tribute to his legacy (Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation 2007 Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation. 2007. CRPF news: Christopher Reeve Foundation Superman Tags. Available from http: //www. christopherreeve. org/ Google Scholar). All proceeds support the Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation. The hyper-implosion of several vectors of figuration is evident here. 18. In this announcement, Bush limited public funding of human embryonic stem cell research to 78 cell lines that had already been established prior to 9 August 2001. It has since been reported by the National Institutes of Health that out of these 78 cell lines, only 19 are now viable (Democratic Party 2005 Democratic Party. 2005. Press release: Bush sacrifices stem cell research to radical right wing politics, 24 May. Available from http: //www. democrats. org/a/2005/05/bushₛacrifices. php Google Scholar). 19. For example, once again from the vortex that is California, grieving pet owners who once had to pay up to 50, 000 could have replaced a lost pet by purchasing a reproductively cloned kitten for a reduced price of 32, 000 from Genetic Savings and Clone, Inc Genetic Savings and Clone, Inc. n. d. Gene banking and cloning of exceptional pets: Cat cloning. Available from http: //www. savingsandclone. com/services/catcloning. html Google Scholar. However, this company closed its doors at the end of 2006, claiming that there was insufficient demand for its product. It directed anyone who was still interested in freezing their pet's DNA for future cloning possibilities to the Texas-based company ViaGen. On its website, ViaGen states that it would be happy to provide this service for the price tag of a mere 1, 500 (ViaGen 2007 Viagen. 2007. Available from http: //www. viagen. com/en/our-services/preserving-your-pets/ Google Scholar). 20. In 2001, the company BresaGen Ltd claimed to have cloned Australia's first pig. The cloned animals are intended for use in human organ transplantation (‘Australian Researchers Clone Pig’ 2001 Australian researchers clone pig. 2001. BBC News Online, 9 May. Available from http: //news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/science/nature/1321470. stm Google Scholar). The death of Australia's first cloned sheep, Matilda, also drew much public attention, coming just weeks before the death of Dolly (Biotechnology Australia 2007 Biotechnology Australia. 2007. Cloning animals. Biotechnology Online school resource website. Available from http: //www. biotechnologyonline. gov. au/human/cloninganimal. cfm Google Scholar). 21. For instance, in light of the new legislation that would allow Australian scientists to move ahead with therapeutic cloning, Australian feminist Catherine Waldby recently pointed out concerns regarding the trafficking of ova and the exploitation of poor women around the world to support the rapidly developing market for human eggs. Interestingly, Waldby's comments were easily dismissed by an Australian stem-cell researcher who, failing to see her point, stated ‘Waldby's concerns are of no direct relevance to Australia’ (Salleh 2007 Salleh, Anna. 2007. Stem-cell research ‘boosting’ women's egg trade. ABC News Science Online, Friday 6 July. Available from http: //abc. net. au/news/stories/2007/07/06/1971409. htm Google Scholar). 22. Stengers explains that her ecology of practices is composed of what Brian Massumi has called a ‘Leibnizian technology’ (2005, 188). 23. In her discussion of poststructural ethics, Braidotti states that becoming political involves ‘a radical repositioning or internal transformation on the part of subjects who want to become-minoritarian in a productive and affirmative manner’ (2006, 83).