Toward a theory of learned hopefulness: A structural model analysis of participation and empowerment

Two competing structural models were tested in an effort to develop a theory of learned hopefulness. Learned hopefulness suggests that empowering experiences—ones that provide opportunities to learn skills and develop a sense of control—can help individuals limit the debilitating effects of problems in living. Voluntary organizations are identified as natural settings that enable individuals to develop a sense of psychological empowerment. Empowerment was measured by cognitive, personality, and motivational measures of perceived control. Structural equation modeling was used to compare models for a sample of students and a sample of nonstudent community residents. The model which supports the theory of learned hopefulness included a direct effect of participation in voluntary organizations on psychological empowerment. An alternative model omitted the path between participation and empowerment. The learned hopefulness model reproduced the observed data with less error than the alternative model. The results provide support for a theory of learned hopefulness and suggest that future research to fully develop the theory is warranted.