How enzymes harness highly unfavorable proton transfer reactions

Abstract Acid–base reactions that are exceedingly unfavorable under standard conditions can be catalytically important at enzyme active sites. For example, in triose phosphate isomerase, a glutamate side chain (nominal p K a ≈ 4 in solution) can in fact deprotonate a CH group that is vicinal to a carbonyl (p K a ≈ 18 in solution). This is true because of three distinct interactions: (a) ground state p K a shifts due to environment polarity and electrostatics; (b) dramatic increases in effective molarity due to optimization of proximity and orientation; and (c) transition state p K a shifts due to binding interactions and the formation of strong low barrier hydrogen bonds. In this report, we review the literature showing that the sum of these three effects supplies more than enough free energy to push forward proton transfer reactions that under standard conditions are exceedingly nonspontaneous and slow.