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This article analyzes the philosophical roots of four contemporary nursing theories, Rogers' science of unitary human beings, Newman's theory of expanding consciousness, Watson's theory of caring, and Parse's theory of man-living-health. It is shown that these theories share many common philosophical views, but also maintain some significant differences. With the purpose of contributing to the development of a single metaparadigm for nursing, the following commonly shared themes are identified as forming an appropriate philosophical foundation for the discipline: process, evolution of consciousness, self-transcendence, open systems, harmony, relativity of space-time, pattern, and holism. Views of causality show some divergence between Watson and the other three theorists. Also of particular interest is the finding that Eastern philoso phy has provided an important influence, both direct and indirect, on nursing theory. It is recommended that further philosophical exploration of Indian and Chinese world views be conducted and that the above metaparadigmatic themes be more fully developed in future nursing theory development.
Barbara Sarter (Sun,) studied this question.