Linking regulatory focus and threat–challenge: transitions between and outcomes of four motivational states

Self-regulation research has flourished for the last three decades. In social psychology and beyond, a number of motivational approaches have been developed and these have provided new insights about numerous phenomena. However, a theoretical integration of these approaches is lacking, as are empirical comparisons across theories. This article seeks to make a step towards closing this gap. We do so by suggesting a model that specifies the relation between threat and challenge – as defined by the Biopsychosocial Model of arousal regulation – on the one hand, and promotion and prevention focus – as defined by Regulatory Focus Theory – on the other hand. In addition, the literature on the relation between these four motivational states and their impact on (a) the processing of valenced information and (b) the preference for (social) contexts is reviewed. Finally, we identify avenues for further research.