Treatment of Chronic Pain by Deep Brain Stimulation: Long Term Follow-up and Review of the Literature

Abstract Since the senior author's (J.E.A.) first report in 1972 of the use of deep brain stimulation (DBS) to control chronic pain, electrodes for DBS have been implanted in 141 patients. Of reported series, this one has the largest number of patients and the longest period of follow-up. The mean age of patients in this study was 51.2 years. The mean length of follow-up was 80 months. Patients had experienced pain for a mean period of 65 months before DBS was attempted; all patients had exhausted other medical and surgical therapies. For the purposes of this study, pain states were characterized as being either nociceptive or deafferentation in nature. Nociceptive pain was treated primarily by stimulation of the periaqueductal or periventricular gray, and deafferentation pain was treated primarily by stimulation of the sensory thalamus. Eighty-four patients were treated for deafferentation pain, which included the thalamic pain syndrome (25 cases), peripheral neuropathic pain (16 cases), anesthesia dolorosa (12 cases), paraplegia pain (11 cases), postcordotomy dyesthesia (5 cases), phantom limb pain (5 cases), thoracic neuralgia (4 cases), and miscellaneous pain states (6 cases). We treated 57 patients with nociceptive pain states. 51 for low back and skeletal pain and 6 for pain from the invasion of cancer. Initial relief of pain was obtained by 83 patients (59%). After the mean follow-up period of 80 months, 42 patients (31%) continued to obtain significant pain relief with DBS. Some pain states, particularly anesthesia dolorosa and paraplegia pain, did not seem to respond to DBS. Major complications of therapy included wound infection (12%) and intracranial hemorrhage (3.5%); there was one death in the series (0.7%). Erosion of hardware occurred in 10 patients (7%), and foreign body reaction occurred in 7 (5%). Technical problems most often encountered included migration of the implanted electrodes and equipment failure that led to leakage of current and ineffective stimulation. These complications have been largely eradicated by advances in the design and manufacture of hardware over the 14 years of the study. A review of studies in which long term follow-up of patients treated with DBS was reported, including this series, suggests that lasting relief of pain is obtained in 47% and 60% of patients with deafferentation and nociceptive pain, respectively. Thus, in a carefully selected and evaluated group of patients, DBS can be an effective treatment for chronic, intractable pain.