ABSTRACT Graphical abstract showing rising global plastic production, environmental fate of MNPs, impacts on human health, and remediation methods. Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging contaminants whose physico-chemical characteristics govern their environmental fate, bioavailability, degradation, and transport into biota, positioning them as potential vectors for other environmental pollutants. Advanced analytical techniques, including matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy, and micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, have significantly improved MNP identification and quantification. Increasing evidence links MNP exposure to oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune dysregulation in critical organs, including the liver, kidney, brain, and gastrointestinal tract. However, most ecotoxicological studies remain laboratory-based, limiting their environmental relevance. Critical gaps persist regarding co-contaminant interactions, bioaccumulation, trophic transfer, and long-term field-scale impacts. Conventional wastewater treatment systems can remove a substantial fraction of microplastics, although smaller particles, particularly nanoplastics, often evade treatment. Advanced remediation approaches, including membrane filtration, adsorption, and oxidation processes, provide enhanced removal efficiency but are constrained by fouling, energy demand, and operational costs. Consequently, integrated and hybrid treatment systems combining physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms are increasingly recognized as promising strategies for effective MNP management. Continued interdisciplinary research and coordinated policy interventions are essential to mitigate the ecological and human health risks associated with MNPs contamination.
Singh et al. (Fri,) studied this question.