Human–Machine Interfaces: A Review for Autonomous Electric Vehicles

Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) play an important role in ensuring performance reliability to create safety and comfort during the operation of autonomous vehicles, by efficiently communicating their current state and driving intentions to drivers, passengers, and pedestrians. The motivation for this study emerges from the increasing development of autonomous vehicles and the critical need for effective HMIs to bridge the communication gap between these vehicles and their users. Examples of HMI technologies include visual displays for status updates, auditory alerts for immediate hazards, and haptic feedback for enhanced control. During automated driving tasks that may require users to take control of the vehicle under certain conditions, the interfaces must support the situational awareness of the drivers by providing effective communication of the situation. Design challenges include ensuring intuitive interaction, minimizing driver distraction, and achieving seamless integration with advanced vehicle control systems. The objective of this literature review is to present a comprehensive overview of the development of human-machine interface technologies in autonomous vehicles in different domain areas and to identify design challenges and opportunities to improve their interaction with their users.