A comparison of adult outcomes for males compared to females following pediatric traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the association between traumatic brain injury (TBI) and internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors and determine if these apply equally to males and females. METHOD: The association between adult psychosocial functioning and childhood TBI for males and females was examined using groups with a history of childhood TBI (mild or moderate/severe) or orthopedic injury (injury age, 1-17, assessed 18-31 at >5 years postinjury), including rates of depression and anxiety disorders, substance abuse/dependence and offending behavior. Repeated-measures logistic regression was used to determine if the rates of internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors varied by group and sex. RESULTS: Overall rates of problem behaviors were significantly greater for both moderate/severe TBI (OR = 4.00) and mild TBI (OR = 3.60) groups compared with orthopedic controls. Females were significantly more likely than males to report a history of internalizing problems (OR = 2.22), whereas males were more likely than females to report externalizing problems (OR = 2.10). The sex difference in internalizing/externalizing problems was found consistently across TBI groups and controls. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood TBI is associated with psychosocial problems in adulthood, regardless of injury severity. How deficits are expressed differs between the sexes, with important implications for interventions strategies.