The national crisis and de/reconstructing nationalism in South Korea during the IMF intervention

Abstract Abstract This paper explores the process by which Korean nationalism was challenged and transformed through utilizing sports celebrities as iconic figures during the International Monetary Fund (IMF) intervention in South Korea. The influences of the IMF intervention were not limited to economic and political fields; rather, Korean nationalism had undergone substantial changes through the national crisis. At that time, two Korean athletes who were hugely successful in the US became national celebrities, or even national heroes in South Korea, a baseball player, Chan‐ho Park and a goler Se‐ri Pak. The media representation of these two Korean athletes is useful for the understanding of altered nationalism during the IMF intervention. The analysis of media coverage of these two athletes can be summarized in three ways: first, the coverage is focused on a self‐governing individual; second, that individual is invested with the image of economic success in global competition; and third, that individual is invested with the image of responsibility for both family and nation‐state. Conclusively, the two celebrities were presented as models for a new kind of citizenship, i. e. a national individual. Finally, this paper suggests that Korean nationalism has been altered through the IMF intervention, but remains a hegemonic ideology albeit combined with neoliberalism. Keywords: Nationalismglobalizationthe IMF interventionsports celebritynational individual Notes 1. Cho explains that raising and distributing resources is performed in the interaction between the market and the state (Cho 2000 Cho, H. 2000. ‘The structure of the South Korean developmental regime and its transformation – statist mobilization and authoritarian integration in the anticommunist regimentation’. Inter‐Asia Cultural Studies, 1 (3): 408–426. Google Scholar). 2. This progress gained momentum when South Korea joined the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development) in 1996. 3. The big deals indicate swapping companies between conglomerates if both had the same branch, which made each conglomerate own a bigger company in one branch while giving up another branch to the other. 4. Shin argues that the most immediate impact of the economic crisis has been the polarization of economic status amongst the people (Shin 2000 Shin, K. 2000. ‘The discourse of crisis and the crisis of discourse’. Inter‐Asia Cultural Studies, 1 (3): 427–442. Taylor as a persistent feature of nationalism, it is something from the state, and serving the interests of the state first and foremost (Anderson 1983 Anderson, B. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London and New York: Verso. [Google Scholar). Kim describes that a nationality in Korea is an identity of a forced community (Kim 1999 Kim, D. 1999. ‘Kookmin in Korea in the 21st Century’ ‘20 Saekee Hankookesuui “Kookmin”’. Changjakwa Beepyungsa,: 30–47. Google Scholar). The nation‐states during the 1970s had fascism elements. 12. Gellner’s theory offers two reasons for the success of nationalism; one is that nationalism satisfies the functional requirements of industrial society (Lessnoff 2002 Lessnoff, M. 2002. Ernest Gellner and Modernity, Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Google Scholar). 13. Park insists that the integrating effects of nationalism are employed by political power groups and cause the suffocation of diversities of civic societies and individuals (Park 1998 Park, M. 1998. “‘Ideas of others and national identity in modern Korea’, ‘Keundae Hankookui Tajainsikui Byunhwawa Minjok Jungcheasung’”. In Research on Social Theory (Sahoisa Yonkooui Yironkwa Siljea), Edited by: Jee, S. 113–155. Seoul: Jungshinmoonhwa. Google Scholar). 14. The economic nationalism is driven by complex interactions between transitional and social forces to which political parties and the state must reply. Glassman argues that the Thai government deployed economic nationalism that is only national in a very specific and neomercantilist sense (Glassman 2004 Glassman, J. 2004. ‘Economic “nationalism” in a post‐nationalist era: the political economy of economic policy in post‐crisis Thailand’. Critical Asian Studies, 36 (1): 36–64. Web of Science ®, Google Scholar). 15. His salaries also had increased enormously and reached at almost ten million dollars in 2001. 16. The fee was only 0. 3 million in 1997, but it was increased to 1 million in 1998, 1. 5 million in 1990 and 3 million in 2000. In 2001, MBC, a national network, contracted a deal to pay 7 million per year for 4 years, and in 2005, X‐sports, a cable network, made a 10 million per year deal. 17. The boom in learning golf became a social issue and, in particular, the golf education of youths became controversial (Donga‐Ilbo, 15 July 1998 Donga‐Ilbo. 4 August 1998. ‘Big money from sport marketing in Samsung’ 4 August, Google Scholar). 18. One article reported that many people got confused about the sudden boom of golf in South Korea commenting that ‘golf is the sport with social implications either positive or negative in South Korea’ (Hankook‐Ilbo, 21 July 1998 Hankook‐Ilbo. 27 November 1998. ‘Samsung’s technology with Pak’s image’ 27 November, Google Scholar). 19. One article reported that pitching practices and indoor driving ranges were good items for new business due to the two celebrities (Hankook‐Ilbo, 16 November 1998 Hankook‐Ilbo. 27 November 1998. ‘Samsung’s technology with Pak’s image’ 27 November, Google Scholar). 20. An anonymous respondent commented that ‘I am overly excited with her performance although I have no idea of what golf is’ (Hankyorae, 8 July 1998). A columnist also commented that she was anxiously watching the games although she had less understanding of the rules and the details (Seoul‐Shinmoon, 20 July 1998). 21. The media argued that due to the high fees it was a good decision for public networks to give up broadcasting MLB during the economic crisis, and suggested that people should be patient with the inconvenience of not watching his games live (Saekye‐Ilbo, 9 January 1998). One newspaper reported that 91% of the online poll participants voted not to pay money for broadcasting MLB in 1998 (Hankook‐Ilbo, 21 January 1998 Hankook‐Ilbo. 27 November 1998. ‘Samsung’s technology with Pak’s image’ 27 November, Google Scholar). 22. Contrary to other national networks such as KBS and MBC, i‐TV covers only Kyounginn province, which includes Incheon city, Seoul and the suburban areas. No one expected i‐TV to purchase the rights to broadcast MLB in 1998. However, i‐TV was highly criticized for paying so much money (Saekye‐Ilbo, 2 April 1998; Kookmin‐Ilbo, 2 April 1998). 23. His news was introduced earlier than the news about the Olympics and the Korean team in KBS 9 pm News on 2 August 1997. 24. For instance, Chosun‐Ilbo put the serial reports of estimating Park’s success in MLB for five days after the end of the 1997 season (from 30 September – 5 October 1997). 25. President Kim bestowed a national honor on him, along with female golfer, Se‐ri Pak who also played in US female golf tournaments, on 2 November 1998 (Saekyae‐Ilbo, 7 November 1998). 26. He was in a public commercial with another sports celebrity, Se‐ri Pak who also accomplished a great performance in the LPGA (Lady Professional Golf Association) in the US without getting any money (Chosun‐Ilbo, 5 August 1998). 27. I obtained the sources in two ways: first, I copied the pages of the newspaper Chosun‐Ilbo, in which Park’s news was reported; second, I downloaded the news about Pak and Park from www. kinds. or. kr. 28. In his amateur days, he was not ranked as a top prospect: rather, he was regarded as a pitcher who could throw a fast ball (Chosun‐Ilbo, 2 August 1997). 29. When he pitched the ball while suffering with a stomach‐ache and cold, the media entitled his performance as a victory of mental strength (Chosun‐Ilbo, 18 August 1997). 30. For example, Park’s first tenth victory in MLB was compared to accomplishing an ‘American Dream’ (Chosun‐Ilbo, 2 August 1997). 31. See Donga‐Ilbo (14 July 1998) with a comment on making ‘Astra’ (a brand of golf wear of Samsung Corp. ) a global brand following the success of Nike; and Saegye‐Ilbo (9 July 1998) with a comment on ‘the soaring stock prices of Samsung’. 32. Contrary to media description, his salary and other incomes basically did not help with the Korean economy: rather, he earned money from local corporations for the commercials without paying taxes to the Korean government due to special tax agreements between the Korean and American governments (Donga‐Ilbo, 7 October 1997). 33. In particular, MBC News reported the detail from the article of LA Times for three minutes. 34. Most newspapers reported the cover picture of Pak in the New York Times, with the story that Korea could rebound from its economic struggles and Pak had become the hope for Koreans (Donga‐Ilbo, 12 August 1998 Donga‐Ilbo. 4 August 1998. ‘Big money from sport marketing in Samsung’ 4 August, Google Scholar; Kyounghyang‐Shinmoon, 13 August 1998 Kyounghyang‐Shinmoon. 19 May 1998. ‘Marketing effect of one billion dollar’ 19 May, Google Scholar). 35. Park also expressed his appreciation to Korean immigrants in LA for their endless support. 36. He was often blamed for his seemingly awkward Korean during the interview in 1997 (Kyounghyang‐Shinmoon, 27 May 1997). 37. When Park had his 17th victory in 2000, it was particularly underscored that Park exceeded the record of Nomo Hideo, a Japanese player in MLB (MBC 9pm News, 25 September 2005).