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This experimental study of the 1996 television spots conducted in a series of locations during the general election campaign indicates that exposure to Dole's spots enhanced his image in September, but October exposures resulted in a negative image effect for Dole and a positive one for Clinton. Effects of spot exposure on independents and on women were particularly significant. The results also show that technological manipulations in negative spots can achieve the desired effects for ad sponsors.
Lynda Lee Kaid (Fri,) studied this question.