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GPS-based pedestrian navigation systems have become increasingly popular. Different interface technologies can be used to communicate/convey route directions to pedestrians. This paper aims to empirically study the influence of different interface technologies on spatial knowledge acquisition in the context of GPS-based pedestrian navigation. A field experiment was implemented to address this concern. Firstly; the suitability of the evaluation methods in assessing spatial knowledge acquisition was analyzed empirically (focusing on the ability of differentiating "familiar" and "unfamiliar" participants). The: suitable methods were then used to compare the influence of mobile maps, augmented reality; and voice on spatial learning. The field test showed that in terms of spatial knowledge acquisition, the three interface technologies led to comparable results, which were not significantly different from each other. The results bring some challenging issues for consideration when designing mobile pedestrian navigation systems.
Huang et al. (Sun,) studied this question.