New Social Movements in Turkey Since 1980

Abstract First, this article aims to constitute a theoretical framework to define and analyze new social movements in comparison with the classical collective action of earlier times. Then it dwells on the Resource Mobilization—versus New Social Movements Theory debates. Resource Mobilization Theory, more popular in the US, and New Social Movements Theory, its European counterpart, are the seminal theories developed to analyze new social movements. The case of Turkey is scrutinized and explained through Islamism, Feminism, Alevism and Kurdism, respectively. Then the article ends up with an overall evaluation respecting the attitudes of society at large towards these movements. Notes See Alberto Melucci, "The Process of Collective Identity," in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans (eds.), Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), pp.41–67; Steven M. Buechler, Social Movements in Advanced Capitalism: The Political Economy and Cultural Construction of Social Activism (New York‐Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p.163. See Alaine Touraine, Return of the Actor (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1988). Ibid., p.532. Robert Merton, Introduction to Sociology (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc., 1983), p.434. James M. Jasper, The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography, and Creativity in Social Movements (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1997), p.5. Andrew Heywood, Politics (London: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1997), pp.265–6. Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, "Social Movements and the Changing Structure of European Union," in Gary Marks, Fritz W. Scharpf, Philippe C. Schimitter and Wolfgang Streeck (eds.), Governance in the European Union (London: Sage Publications, 1996), pp.97–9. See Claus Offe, "Yeni Sosyal Hareketler: Kurumsal Politikanın Sınırlarının Zorlanması," New Social Movements: Forcing the Limits of Institutional Politics in Sabri Özburun (ed.), Yeni Sosyal Hareketler: Teorik Açılımlar New Social Movements: Theoretical Openings (Istanbul: Kaknüs Yayınları, 1999), pp.53–79. Alberto Melucci, "The New Social Movements Revisited: Reflections on a Sociological Misunderstanding," in Louis Maheu (ed.), Social Movements and Social Classes: The Future of Collective Action (London: Sage Publications, 1995), pp.112–14. Maurice Roche, "Rethinking Citizenship and Social Movements: Themes in Contemporary Sociology and Neo‐conservative Ideology," in Louis Maheu (ed.), Social Movements and Social Classes (1995), pp.186–91. Hank Johnston, Enrique Larana and Joseph R. Gusfield (eds.), "Kimlikler fiŞikayetler ve Yeni Toplumsal Hareketler" Identities, Complaints and New Social Movements in Sabri Özburun (ed.) (1999), pp.131–61. Jean Cohen, "Strateji ya da Kimlik: Yeni Teorik Paradigmalar ve Yeni Sosyal Hareketler" Strategy or Identity: New Theoretical Paradigms and New Social Movements in Sabri Özburun (ed.), Yeni Toplumsal Hareketler (1999), pp.109–29. Robert Merton, (1983), p.437. Ibid., pp.438–41. Cohen (1999), pp.109–29. Ibid. Steven M. Buechler (2000), pp.45–46. Ibid., p.38; Cohen (1999), pp.109–29. Steven M. Buechler (2000), p.46. Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspectives (London: Heinemann, 1963). fiŞirin Tekeli, "Introduction: Women in Turkey in the 1980s," in fiŞirin Tekeli (ed.), Women in Modern Turkish Society: A Reader (London and New Jersey: Zed Books Ltd, 1995), p.4. Kenan Çayır, "İslamcı Bir Sivil Toplum Örgütü: Gökkuflşa¤ğı İstanbul Kadın Platformu" An Islamist NGO: Rainbow Woman Platform in Nilüfer Göle (ed.), İslamın Yeni Kamusal Yüzleri New Public Faces of Islam (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2000), p.66. Aside from Fethullah Gülen's community, there are Yeni Asyacılar and Yeni Nesil Grubu (both Nurcu, followers of Said Nursi). But Gülen's movement is far more popular than the latter. See Ugur Kömecoglu, "Kutsal ile Kamusal: Fethullah Gülen Cemaat Hareketi," Sacred and Public: Fethullah Gülen Community Movement in Nilüfer Göle (ed.) (2000), p.163. At one, I happened to witness one of the two students, who were just beginning to pray, address a third person: "Aren't you praying with us?" The student said: "no, thank you." The second student said to the first one: "he will pray soon, however." See Kömecoglu (2000), pp.148–94. William Hale, "Foreword," in Sylvia Kedourie (ed.), Turkey, Identity, Democracy, Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1998), pp.VII–VIII. See fiŞirin Tekeli, "Introduction," in fiŞirin Tekeli (ed.) (1995), p.13. See Yesim Arat, "Feminist Institutions and Democratic Aspirations: The Case of the Purple Roof Women's Shelter Foundation," in Zehra Fatma Arat (ed.), Deconstructing the Image of "The Turkish Women" (London: Macmillan. Press, 1998), pp.296–99; fiŞirin Tekeli, "Introduction," in fiŞirin Tekeli (ed.) (1995), p.14. See Tekeli, "Introduction," in fiŞirin Tekeli (ed.) (1995), p.14. See Yesim Arat (1998), pp.297–9. See Çayır (2000), pp.41–67. Tekeli, "Introduction," in Tekeli (ed.) (1995), p.14. In 1989 the Constitutional Court ratified an article reducing the punishment by two‐thirds for those who rape prostitutes. Women held a large protest meeting with an unheard of slogan "we are all prostitutes." Although it may appear theatrical and innovative to political sociologists, the slogan was certainly detrimental for Turkish culture and morality. The slogan, however, became very successful in gaining support from a large public, and finally the Parliament abolished that law. See ibid., p.15. Cf., David Shankland, Islam and Society in Turkey (Cambridgeshire: The Oethen Press, 1999), p.133. For a bibliography on Alevi cultural and religious literature see Karin Vorhoff, "Academic and Journalistic Publications on the Alevi and Bektashi of Turkey," in Tord Olson, Elizabeth Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere (eds.), Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 1998), pp.40–50. Among such activities, the conference held by the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul in collaboration with a number of Turkish and foreign intellectuals, for instance, is an outstanding one. See Fuat Bozkurt, "State‐Community Relations in the Restructuring of Alevism," in Tord Olson, Elizabeth Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere (eds.) Alevi Identity (1998), p.87. See Helga Rittersberger‐Tiliç, "Development and Reformulation of a Returnee Identity as Alevi," in Tord Olson, Elizabeth Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere (eds.) Alevi Identity (1998), p.76. For further methods of assimilation of the Alevi see, for instance, Ruflşen Çakır, "Political Alevism Versus Political Sunnism: Convergences and Divergences," in Tord Olson, Elizabeth Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere (eds.) Alevi Identity (1998), pp.63–7; Bozkurt (1998), pp.85–96. Cf. Shankland (1999), p.116. Cf. Çakır (1998), p.64. See Reha Çamuro¤ğlu, "Alevi Revivalism in Turkey," in Tord Olson, Elizabeth Özdalga and Catharina Raudvere (eds.) Alevi Identity (1998), pp.79–80. Cf. Shankland (1999), pp.152–63. For a comparison and contrast of Sunni Islamism and the Alevi movement, see Çakır (1998), pp.63–7. Cf. Jonathan Friedman, Cultural Identity and Global Process (London: Sage Publications, 2nd ed., 1996), pp.120–32. The Alevi population in Turkey is estimated to be one‐fifth of the total population which is now approximately 65 million. This amounts to 13 million, 20 percent of which are Kurdish Alevi. Although there are certain provinces such as Çorum, Sivas and Kahramanmaraflş where the Alevi live in some density, they are generally dispersed all over the country. See Shankland (1999), p.136. For an interesting analysis of the relations between the Kurds and the Ottoman government, see Mesut Ye¤ğen, "The Turkish State Discourse and the Exclusion of Kurdish Identity," in Sylvia Kedourie (ed.) (1998), pp.216–29. Cf. Sefa fiŞimsek, "People's Houses: An Experiment in Ideological Training in Turkey, 1932–51" (Istanbul: Bo¤ğaziçi University, 1996/doctoral dissertation), especially the chapter entitled "The Quest of Future in the Past." See Orhan Türkdo¤ğan, Güneydo¤ğu Kimli¤ği: Aflşiret, Kültür, İnsan South‐Eastern Identity: Tribe, Culture, People (Istanbul: Alfa Yayınları, 2nd ed., 1998), pp.421–48. See Kemal Kiriflşci and Gareth Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans‐State Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997), pp.109–10. Marks and McAdam (1996), pp.109–16. See Hamit Bozarslan, "Political Crisis and the Kurdish Issue in Turkey," in Robert Olson (ed.), The Kurdish Nationalist Movements in the 1990s: Its Impact on Turkey and the Middle East (Kentucky: The University Press, 1996), pp.146–8. Cf. Kiriflşci and Winrow (1997), pp.149–50. Cf. Robert Olson and Yücel Bozda¤ğlıo¤ğlu, "The New Democracy Movement in Turkey: A Response to Liberal Capitalism and Kurdish Ethno‐Nationalism," in Olson (ed.) (1996), pp.154–72. See Kiriflşci and Winrow (1997), pp.111–13. See Robert Merton (1983), pp.444–48. Aram Nigosiam, "Turkey's Kurdish Problem: Recent Trends," in Olson (ed.) (1996), pp.43–44. Cited in Ibid., p.45. Cited in Ibid., p.45. See Buket Türkmen, "Laikli¤ğin Dönüflşümü: Liseli Gençler, Türban ve Atatürk Roseti," Transformation of Laicism: High School Youth, Headscarf and Atatürk Rosette in Nilüfer Göle (ed.) (2000), pp.110–47. For more detailed statistics on religion, society and politics in Turkey, see Binnaz Toprak and Ali Çarko¤ğlu, "Türkiye'de Din, Toplum ve Siyaset" Religion, Society and Politics in Turkey (field survey), at ⟨ www.tesev.org.tr ⟩.