China’s move to mass higher education in a comparative perspective

Abstract This paper analyzes how China has managed to embrace mass higher education in a short timeline, and examines how far this move has followed the existing or established patterns elsewhere through comparing its core aspects with those of four identifiable models of mass higher education: the American model, the Western European model, the Latin American model and the East Asian model. While acknowledging that the current structure of the Chinese higher education system appears to resemble the American in many ways, this paper concludes that it is fundamentally different from the American model, as well as from the Western European and the Latin American models. Largely mirroring the East Asian model, the Chinese approach features a strong sense of 'state instrumentism' and is also characterized by integral tensions among its various sectors, which could turn into either positive dynamics for vibrant growth or negative forces leading to serious social justice and equity issues. After enjoying an unprecedented expansion between 1999 and 2006, Chinese higher education has come to a historical juncture to reconsider its success in the light of more collaborative and normative ideologies, such as those grounded in social justice and human potential. Keywords: Chinese approachmass higher educationcomparative study Notes 1. The official exchange rate between US dollar and RMB yuan was 1:6.8 in 2009. Yet, over the years, it has been noted that China's currency is grossly undervalued. The International Monetary Fund estimated that, by purchasing power parity, one US dollar was equivalent to approximately 3.872 yuan RMB in 2009. 2. The 'core Project 98/5 universities' refers to the first nine universities included in the project in 1999 and 2000. Some more joined in this project one after another until 2009. All universities selected on Project 98/5 are the national ones, and included in Project 21/1 as well. In addition to them, Project 21/1 includes a few dozen more national and local universities. 3. China adopts mandatory retirement policy across the country and all sectors, setting retirement age at 55 for females and 60 for males. 4. Chinese higher education system uses four-level professional ranks: full professor, associate professor, lecturer and assistant lecturer, in a descending order, with Chinese lecturer equivalent to assistant professor in the North American universities. 5. Chile and Brazil were the exceptions, where the private higher education sector grew considerably at a relatively early phase.