Khatami's Islamist-Iranian Discourse of National Identity: A Discourse of Resistance

Abstract Using a discourse approach, the article demonstrates that Khatami's construction of Iranian national identity is a discourse of resistance on the international and regional levels. This resistance is evident in the meanings attached to three sets of values: Iranian-Islamic culture, 'dialogue among civilisations' and Islamic mardumsālārī, which are referred to as the three pillars of the Islamist-Iranian discourse of national identity. In terms of Iranian-Islamic culture, it is evident that Islam is Iranianised and furthermore the framework for the political apparatus is not simply politicised Islam, but rather Iranian political Islam. In terms of 'dialogue among civilisations', the resistance is not only to perceived Western hegemony in the international system, but also resistance to the dominance of the West and Western perspectives in the discipline of International Relations. Finally, Khatami establishes Islamic mardumsālārī as the most appropriate and authentic means of maintaining Iran as an independent nation. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the British Institute of Persian Studies for funding two research trips to Iran. The first was for doctoral research in autumn 2005 and the second was for post-doctoral research in summer 2008. This article is based on research carried out in these periods. It was drafted during the autumn of 2008 and the final version was submitted for publication in November 2008. Unless otherwise stated, the author has carried out all translations from the Persian text. Transliteration from the Persian language into English is based on the transliteration table of the International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. Notes 1 The Iranian solar calendar starts on 21 March and the Iranian year 1376 refers to the period 21 March 1997–20 March 1998. When a specific date is given in the Iranian calendar it is converted into the Gregorian date. When a year is given, such as 1376, the Gregorian date will be given as (1997/1998). 2 Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi, 'Iran's Tortuous Path toward "Islamic Liberalism"', International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, 15(2) (2001), p. 250. 3 Farhad Kazemi, 'Why Iran chose Khatami (I)', Middle Eastern Lectures, 3 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1999), p. 12. 4 Wilfried Buchta, Who rules Iran? The Structure of Power in the Islamic Republic (Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy Davud Mirmohammadi (ed.), Guftārhāy-i darbāra-yi Huvīyat-i Millī-yi Iran (Discussions on Iran's National Identity) (Tehran, Iran: Iranian Civilisation Publications, 1383 (2004/2005)); Ali M. Ansari, Modern Iran: The Pahlavis and After, 2nd edition (Edinburgh: Pearson Education Ltd, 2007); Mehrzad Boroujerdi, 'Contesting Nationalist Constructions of Iranian Identity', Critique, 7(12) (January 1998), pp. 43–56; Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press, 1979); Mustafa Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation: The Construction of National Identity (New York: Paragon House, 1993); and Sussan Siavoshi, Liberal Nationalism in Iran: The Failure of a Movement (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990). 9 See Shabnam Holliday, 'The politicisation of culture and the contestation of Iranian national identity in Khatami's Iran', Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 8(1) (Spring 2007), pp. 27–44; pp. 28–31 for a discussion of the Islamist-Iranian discourse of national identity. 10 See Shabnam Holliday, 'The politicisation of culture and the contestation of Iranian national identity in Khatami's Iran', Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 8(1) (Spring 2007), pp. 27–44; pp. 28–31 for a discussion of the Islamist-Iranian discourse of national identity., pp. 28–29 11 See Shabnam Holliday, 'The politicisation of culture and the contestation of Iranian national identity in Khatami's Iran', Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 8(1) (Spring 2007), pp. 27–44; pp. 28–31 for a discussion of the Islamist-Iranian discourse of national identity., pp. 30–31 12 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Religious Belief in Today's World', in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society (Canberra: Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies, The Australian National University, 2000), p. 42. 13 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'The Islamic World and Modern Challenges' 9 December 1997, in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society (Canberra: Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies, The Australian National University, 2000)., p. 42. 14 Jennifer Milliken, 'The Study of Discourse in International Relations: A Critique of Research and Methods', European Journal of International Relations, 5(2) (1999), p. 229. 15 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, 2nd edition (London: Verso, 2006), pp. 6–7. 16 Teun A van Dijk, Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach (London: Sage Publications, 1998), p. 5. 17 Teun A van Dijk, Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach (London: Sage Publications, 1998)., pp. 14, 192 and 193; and Norman Fairclough, Language and Power (London: Longman, 1989), p. 77. 19 Michel Foucault, This History of Sexuality, Vol. 1: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), pp. 100–101. 18 David Forgacs (ed.), The Antonio Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings 1916–1935 (New York: New York University Press, 2000), p. 194. 20 David Howarth, Discourse (Buckingham: Open University Press, 2000), p. 49. 21 Fairclough, Language and Power, p. 77 22 Fairclough, Language and Power., p. 77 23 Robert Young, 'Introduction to Michel Foucault "The order of discourse"', in Robert Young (ed.), Untying the Text: A Post-structuralist Reader (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), p. 48. 24 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Religious Beliefs in Today's World', in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society, p. 42. 25 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Religious Beliefs in Today's World', in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society., p. 42 26 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Religious Beliefs in Today's World', in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society., p. 42. See also Farid Mirbagheri, 'Narrowing the Gap or Camouflaging the Divide: An Analysis of Mohammad Khatami's "Dialogue of Civilisations"', British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 34(3) (2007). pp. 305–316; p. 309 for an analysis of culture and civilisation. 28 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Huvīyat-i Īrānī-Īslāmī (Iranian-Islamic Identity)' 1377 (1998), in Īslām, Rūhānīyat va Inqilāb-i Īslāmī, p. 61. 27 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Farhang-i Īrānī-Īslāmī (Iranian-Islamic culture)' 1376 (1997), in Īslām, Rawhānīyat va Inqilāb-i Īslāmī; ba muqaddimay az Seyyed Mohammad Ali Abtahi (Islam, Clericism and the Islamic Revolution; with an introduction from Seyyed Mohammad Ali Abtahi) (Tehran: Tarh-i Naw Publications, 1379 (2000/2001)), p. 18. 29 Nikki Keddie, 'Religion, Ethnic Minorities, and the State in Iran: An Overview', in A. Banuazizi and M. Weiner (eds), The State, Religion and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1986), p. 158. 30 Henry Corbin, En Islam Iranien: Aspects Spirituel et Philosophiques: Le Shi'isme Duodécimain, Vol. 1 (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1971), pp. 4–5. 31 Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (London: I. B. Tauris, 1982), p. 121. 32 See Samuel Huntington, 'The Clash of Civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, 72(3) (Summer 1993), pp. 24, 25, 31 and 32. 33 Khatami, 'The Islamic World and Modern Challenges', p. 14. 34 Seyyed Mohammad Ali Abtahi, 'Introduction', in Khatami, Islām, Rawhānīyat va Inqilāb-i Īslāmī, p. 7 35 Ali M. Ansari, Islam, Iran and Democracy: The Politics of Managing Change, 2nd edition (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2006), p. 133. 36 Mirbagheri, 'Narrowing the Gap', p. 316. 37 Mirbagheri, 'Narrowing the Gap'., p. 309 38 Ansari, Islam, Iran and Democracy, p. 133. 39 Jűrgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action. Vol. 2. Lifeworld and System: A Critique of Functionalist Reason, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), p. 63. 40 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Symposium: Islam, Iran and the Dialogue of Civilisations', Global Dialogue,3(1) (2001), p. 1 cited in Mirbagheri, 'Narrowing the Gap', p. 308. 41 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Dialogue and the New Millennium' 29 October 1999, Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society, p. 28. 42 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Dialogue and the New Millennium' 29 October 1999, in. Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society., p. 30. 43 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Dialogue and the New Millennium' 29 October 1999, in. Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society., p. 31. 44 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Dialogue and the New Millennium' 29 October 1999, in. Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society., p. 33. 45 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Dialogue among Civilisations and the World of Islam', in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society, p. 1. Unfortunately, no further details are available for the speech; no date or location is given. Therefore it is difficult to contextualise the speech. 46 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Dialogue between East and West' 10 March 1999, in Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society, p. 11. 47 Robert E. Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), p. 62. 48 Robert E. Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998)., p. 79. 49 Robert E. Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998)., p. 78. 50 Geeta Chowdhry and Sheila Nair (eds), Power, Postcolonialism and International Relations: Reading Race, Gender and Class (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 3. 51 Mohammad Ali Abtahi, 'Introduction', in Mardumsālārī (Democracy) (Tehran: Tarh-i Naw Publishers, 1380 (2001)), p. 7. See Mehran Kamrava, 'The Civil Society Discourse in Iran', British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 28(2) (2001), pp. 165–185 for a discussion of the multiple civil society discourses. 52 Interview by author with Seyyed Mohammad Ali Abtahi, Tehran, 26 November 2005. 53 Mohammad Khatami, Mardumsālārī (Democracy) (Tehran: Tarh-i Naw Publishers, 1380 (2001)), p. 17. 54 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Duvum-i Khurdād va Mardumsālārī Islāmī—Sukhanrānī dar Didār-i "Umūmī bā Mardum-i Hamadān" (Second of Khordad and Islamic Mardumsālārī—A Speech at a General Meeting with the People of Hamadan) 5 Mordad 1378 (27 July 1999)', in Khatami, Mardumsālārī (Democracy), p. 99–100. 55 Seyyed Mohammad Khatami, 'Duvum-i Khurdād va Mardumsālārī Islāmī—Sukhanrānī dar Didār-i "Umūmi ba Mardum-i Hamadān" (Second of Khordad and Islamic Mardumsālārī—A Speech at a General Meeting with the People of Hamadan) 5 Mordad 1378 (27 July 1999)', in Khatami, Mardumsālārī (Democracy), p. 100 56 Keddie, Qajar Iran, p. 46. 58 Cited in Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 460. 57 Homayoun Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran, 2nd edition (London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), p. 42. 59 Ansari, Islam, Iran and Democracy, p. 112.