Conceptualizing and Measuring the Effects of School and Schooling

Studies of "school effects" must make a clear conceptual distinction between school and schooling. School is an organization that conducts instruction; schooling is the process through which instruction occurs. Schooling, which is a structure of action by students and teachers, is conditioned by the social organization of classrooms, curricular tracks, and other instructional units. A theory of schooling must include a conceptualization of its social organizational components. A theory of school effects must show how the organizational form of schools affects schooling. In research on school and schooling, it is important to differentiate levels of analysis to be sure that the level of analysis matches the level of conceptualization. Very different results may be obtained by research that does and does not maintain these conceptual and corresponding operational distinctions.