Consciousness in second language acquisition: A review of field studies and laboratory experiments

Abstract This article addresses the roles of implicit learning, conscious hypothesis testing, and explicit instruction in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). In particular it asks (1) what is the role of consciousness in SLA, (2) what is the role of formal explicit instruction in SLA, (3) to what extent are the route, rate, and eventual levels of SLA affected by instruction, (4) does focusing learners’ attention on grammar facilitate SLA, (5) is there a role of negative evidence in SLA? In order to answer these questions it marshals relevant evidence from two complementary sources: (1) ecologically valid but methodologically weaker field studies of classroom SLA, (2) methodologically stronger laboratory experiments which investigate acquisition of artificial languages. These studies suggest that although much of the acquisition of language form comes as a result of implicit learning, there are demonstrable roles for explicit learning, for explicit instruction, particularly that which involves grammatical consciousness raising, and for the provision of negative evidence and recasts. For epistemological reasons it is hard to affect the route of acquisition, but these factors can speed the rate of language acquisition and raise ultimate levels of attainment.