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The article discusses research design, organizational intervention, and measurement of detected change in evaluation criteria. An explanation is given for the three types of change which are alpha, beta, and gamma. The probable causes of change can be categorized as the intervention itself, internal invalidity, external invalidity, and statistical artifact. Rival hypotheses, or factors that could explain criteria changes for scoring organizational effectiveness and also affect validity, include eight sources of internal invalidity and four sources of external invalidity. Examples include five hypothetical cases where alpha and beta change is detected, the sources of internal and external invalidity, and the actual, ideal, and difference scores.
Zmud et al. (Sat,) studied this question.