Phylogenetic perspectives on nodulation: evolving views of plants and symbiotic bacteria

Phylogenetic studies are contributing greatly to our knowledge of relationships on both sides of the plant–bacteria nodulation symbiosis. Multiple origins of nodulation (perhaps even within the legume family) appear likely. However, all nodulating flowering plants are more closely related than previously suspected, suggesting that the predisposition to nodulate might have arisen only once. Phylogenies of 16S rRNA genes highlight the evolutionary diversity of symbiotic bacteria and appear to rule out any broad coevolution with their plant hosts, but high levels of gene transfer might obscure the relevant pattern. The origins of nodulation, and the extent to which developmental programs are conserved in nodules remain unclear, but an improved understanding of the relationships between nodulin genes is providing some clues.