Problems of Translation in Cross-Cultural Research

There are various types of translation problems, not all of which have received sufficient attention. Translation of questions or other verbal stimuli has received more attention than problems of achieving equivalence in translations of orienting and task in-structions and responses. Vocabulary equivalence must take into account language as used by respondents and the possibility of terms lacking equivalents across languages. Equivalence in idiom and in grammar and syntax may be important, but equivalence in terms of experiences and concepts tapped is probably most important of all. Direct translation cannot be assumed to produce equivalent versions of verbal stimuli. Back-translation is not only achievable but is likely to be highly satisfactory if care is taken in its use, especially in locating translators facile in the actual language of target subjects. While the de-centering proposals of Werner and Campbell have much to recommend them, de-centering becomes progressively difficult as one goes from two to multi-culture studies. For the latter purposes a "carrier" language seems inevitably necessary.