Culture and self: An empirical assessment of Markus and Kitayama’s theory of independent and interdependent self‐construals

In this paper, I critically evaluate the logic underlying Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self‐construals, and examine the evidence that directly tests its major assumptions. On the basis of my review of the studies they cite, and literature from three other sources, I conclude that the evidence severely challenges the validity of their theoretical framework for explaining observed national differences in psychological phenomena. I offer some ideas about alternative methodologies for research in this important area of psychology that may aid in developing and testing theories of culture and self in the future.