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Abstract Electrical stimulation as a therapeutic approach is widely applicable in terms of target tissues or target effects. This method can be an alternative to conventional therapies for patients who are resistant to drugs or are ineligible for surgical operations. In addition, as researchers have actively studied how to adjust the parameters for electrical stimulation in order to improve effectiveness, many patients have already received treatments with electrical stimulation. With respect to devices for electrical stimulation, recent studies are focused on developing reliability for safe and long‐term operations. From the point of view of engineers, a comprehensive understanding of how electrical stimulation modulates the biological system is essential to develop advanced strategies that provide effective therapeutic results. Herein, the fundamental mechanisms for delivering electrical stimulation on biological tissues are reviewed along with the requirements that need to be qualified by the electrodes. Furthermore, the latest advances in electrical stimulation devices are discussed followed by an introduction of representative applications of therapeutic electrical stimulation.
Kim et al. (Sat,) studied this question.