The Mantis Network

Context. Using emission lines from metals, we investigate the three-dimensional distribution of temperature and chemistry in ultra-hot Jupiters. Aims. Existing observations of WASP-121 b have suggested an underabundance of titanium and titanium oxide in its terminator region. In this study, we aim to determine whether this depletion is global by investigating the dayside emission spectrum. Methods. We analyzed eight epochs of high-resolution spectra obtained with the ESPRESSO spectrograph, targeting orbital phases when the dayside is in view. We used a cross-correlation method to search for various atoms, TiO, and VO, and compare the results to models. We constrained the velocities and phase function of the emission signal using a Bayesian framework. Results. We report significant detections of Ca I , V I , Cr I , Mn I , Fe I , Co I , and Ni I , but not Ti or TiO. Models containing titanium are unable to reproduce the data. The detected signals are consistent with the known orbital and systemic velocities and with peak emission originating from the substellar point. Conclusions. We find that titanium is depleted from regions of the atmosphere where transmission and emission spectroscopy are sensitive. Supported by recent HST observations of the nightside, we interpret this as evidence for the nightside condensation of titanium, which prevents it from being mixed back into the upper layers of the atmosphere elsewhere on the planet. Species with lower condensation temperatures are unaffected, implying that sharp chemical transitions exist between ultra-hot Jupiters that have slight differences in temperature or dynamical properties. As TiO can act as a strong source of stratospheric heating, cold-trapping creates a coupling between the thermal structures on the dayside and nightside, and thus condensation chemistry needs to be included in global circulation models. Observed elemental abundances in hot Jupiters will not reliably be representative of bulk abundances unless nightside condensation is robustly accounted for or the planet is hot enough to avoid nightside cold traps entirely. Secondary eclipse observations by JWST/NIRISS have the potential to confirm an absence of TiO bands at red-optical wavelengths. We also find that the abundance ratios of metal oxides to their atomic metals (e.g., TiO/Ti) depend strongly on the atmospheric C/O ratio, and that planetary rotation may significantly lower the apparent orbital velocity of the emission signal.