A Global Assessment of Compound Humid Heatwaves-Extreme Rainfall in Major Coastal Cities

Humid heatwaves, defined as extreme temperatures combined with high relative humidity, can affect large populations and result in crop damage, causing public health emergencies and threatening food security. The consequences for society are even more severe when extreme rainfall follows a humid heatwave. There is evidence of the increasing occurrence of humid heatwavesextreme rainfall compound events in several parts of the globe. Their compound impact depends on the response time, the statistical interdependency between the two interacting causal drivers, and their severity. While the correlation between temperature and rainfall tends to be negative at daily or monthly time scales, the correlation between short-duration rainfall extremes and high temperatures is often positive at shorter time scales during the summer. A positive (negative) correlation can result in a higher (lower) risk of compound heatwave-extreme rainfall events. Across the coasts, the dependence strengths between these two variables are often elusive due to the influence of large-scale atmospheric teleconnection. On a global scale, the statistical coupling between humid heatwaves and extreme rainfall events has not been investigated across the coasts. To fill this knowledge gap, this study provides an observational assessment of the compound interactions of summer heatwave amplitude (i.e., the peak temperature of the hottest day during the heatwave episode) and extreme rainfall (described by > 90th percentile threshold of daily rainfall magnitude) across 29 major coastal cities in the tropics (23.5N - 23.5S), subtropics (23.5N - 35N and 23.5S - 35S) and mid-latitudes (35N 60N and 35S - 60S). It finds a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the frequency of compound humid heatwaves-extreme rainfall events in the past few decades, with a more robust increase over the northern hemisphere compared to the southern hemisphere. The mean response times between the heatwave amplitude and the peak rainfall tend to be shorter for the southern sub-tropics than the northern hemisphere sites, indicating a swift transition between two extremes in these regions. Using a multivariate probabilistic framework, we further demonstrate that a modest to substantial increase in heatwave amplitude in summer can enhance the rainfall extremes by 80%, with the most significant increase occurring in the sub-tropics. The findings reveal a strong coupling between humid heatwaves and extreme rainfall in sub-tropical climate regimes, contrasted by a relatively weak coupling across the tropics. Understanding the interactions between humid heatwaves and extreme precipitation across coastal megacities will help decision-makers and stakeholders to adapt and mitigate these compound hazards in densely populated settlements.