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The pursuit of low-carbon transport has significantly increased demand for lithium-ion batteries. However, the rapid increase in battery manufacturing, without adequate consideration of the carbon emissions associated with their production and material demands, poses the threat of shifting the bulk of emissions upstream. In this article, a life cycle assessment (LCA) model is developed to account for the cradle-to-gate carbon footprint of lithium-ion batteries across 26 Chinese provinces, 20 North American locations and 19 countries in Europe and Asia. Analysis of published LCA data reveals significant uncertainty associated with the carbon emissions of key battery materials; their overall contribution to the carbon footprint of a LIB varies by a factor of ca. 4 depending on production route and source. The links between production location and the gate-to-gate carbon footprint of battery manufacturing are explored, with predicted median values ranging between 0.1 and 69.5 kg CO2-eq kWh−1. Leading western-world battery manufacturing locations in the US and Europe, such as Kentucky and Poland are found to have comparable carbon emissions to Chinese rivals, even exceeding the carbon emissions of battery manufacturing in several Chinese provinces. Such resolution on material and energy contributions to the carbon footprint of LIBs is essential to inform policy- and decision-making to minimise the carbon emissions of the battery value chain. Given the current status quo, the global carbon footprint of the lithium-ion battery industry is projected to reach up to 1.0 Gt CO2-eq per year within the next decade. With material supply chain decarbonisation and energy savings in battery manufacturing, a lower estimate of 0.5 Gt CO2-eq per year is possible.
Kallitsis et al. (Sat,) studied this question.