Rainfall-induced landslide prediction models, part ii: deterministic physical and phenomenologically models

Abstract Landslides are frequent hillslope events that may present significant risks to humans and infrastructure. Researchers have made ongoing efforts to assess the potential danger associated with landslides, intending to ascertain the location, frequency, and magnitude of these events in a given area. This study is meant to supplement the previous study (Part I), which explored empirical and physically based causative thresholds. In this paper (Part II), a systematic review is used to conduct an in-depth study of existing research on prediction models. Deterministic physical approaches were investigated for local-scale landslides. Next, national-scale landslide susceptibility models are discussed, including qualitative and quantitative models. Consequently, key findings about rainfall-induced landslides are reviewed. The strategy selection is generally governed by data and input factors from a macroscopic perspective, while the better prediction model is defined by dataset quality and analysis model performance from a microscopic perspective. Physically based causative thresholds can be used with limited geotechnical or hydrological data; otherwise, numerical analysis provides optimal accuracy. Among all statistical models, the hybrid artificial intelligence model achieved the best accuracy. Finally, current challenges have concentrated on integrating AI and physical models to obtain high accuracy with little data, prompting research suggestions. Advanced constitutive models for real-time situations are lacking. Dynamic and spatiotemporal susceptibility maps are also used, although their subjectivity needs further research. This study analyses how to choose the best model and determine its key traits. This research provides valuable insights for scholars and practitioners seeking innovative approaches to lessen the severity of landslides.