Foot pain in children and adolescents: a problem-based approach in musculoskeletal ultrasonography

Various etiologies and risk factors contribute to foot pain in children and adolescents, including conditions such as Kohler's disease, Sever's disease, Iselin's disease, rigid flat foot, accessory navicular, Freiberg's disease, sesamoiditis, os trigonum syndrome, and more. High-frequency musculoskeletal ultrasonography can show both the bone surface and the surrounding soft tissue clearly from various angles in real-time, thereby providing a higher level of detail that is helpful for identifying the etiology of foot pain and monitoring disease progression compared with other imaging modalities. This review provides an overview of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations and characteristic ultrasonographic findings of select foot pain conditions in children and adolescents.