Exploring toilet plume bioaerosol exposure dynamics in public toilets using a Design of Experiments approach

Abstract Bioaerosols generated during toilet flushing can contribute to the spread of airborne pathogens and cross-contamination in indoor environments. This presents an increased risk of fomite-mediated or aerosol disease transmission. This study systematically investigated the factors contributing to increased bioaerosol exposure following toilet flushing and developed an empirical model for predicting the exposure-relevant bioaerosol concentration. Air in a toilet cubicle was sampled by impaction after seeding with Clostridium difficile spores. Design of Experiments (DoE) main effects screening and full factorial design approaches were then employed to investigate the significant factors that heighten the risk of exposure to bioaerosols post-flush. Our findings reveal that the inoculated bacterial concentration ( C ), time elapsed after flushing ( t ), lateral distance ( d ), and mechanical ventilation ( v ) are significant predictors of bioaerosol concentration, with p-values < 0.05. The interaction term, C × d showed a marked increase in bioaerosol concentration up to 232 CFU/m 3 at the closest proximity and highest pathogen load. The interplay of C and t ( C × t ) demonstrated a time-dependent attenuation of bioaerosol viability, with concentrations peaking at 241 CFU/m 3 immediately post-flush and notably diminishing over time. The lateral distance and time post-flush (d × t) interaction also revealed a gradual decrease in bioaerosol concentration, highlighting the effectiveness of spatial and temporal dilution in mitigating bioaerosol exposure risks. Furthermore, there is an immediate rise in relative humidity levels post-flush, impacting the air quality in the toilet environment. This study not only advances our understanding of exposure pathways in determining bioaerosol exposure, but also offers pivotal insights for designing targeted interventions to reduce bioaerosol exposure. Recommendations include designing public toilets with antimicrobial surfaces, optimizing ventilation, and initiating timely disinfection protocols to prioritise surfaces closest to the toilet bowl during peak exposure periods, thereby promoting healthier indoor environments and safeguarding public health in high-traffic toilet settings.