Looking backwards to move forwards: insights for climate change adaptation from historical Māori relocation due to natural hazards in Aotearoa New Zealand

Abstract Climate change relocation of Indigenous communities is increasing globally. For Māori (the Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa New Zealand), many pā (complexes of significant structures) are at risk to climate change impacts with relocation as one potential adaptation option. For Indigenous peoples, this step is not taken lightly, as connection to place is imperative. The aim of this research is to highlight some histories of Māori communities relocating in response to natural hazards, providing insights from the past to help plan for future adaptation. To do this, we undertook a national-scale textual analysis and identified 51 examples of pā relocating in response to natural hazards since pre-1840. We then focused on a case study with members of two iwi (tribes), who relocated following the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera to identify enablers and barriers to relocation, and to draw insights to assist with Māori-led responses to climate change adaptation. We found that key enablers of relocation included whānau (family)-level decision-making, cultural norms of awhi (support), whanaungatanga (relationships), whakapapa (genealogical connection), koha (donation), tuku whenua (gifts of land), and mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge). In summary, Māori and other Indigenous peoples have rich histories of relocations, utilising their own Indigenous knowledge, local implementation, and adaptability to natural hazards that can be implemented in our modern context.