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Triplet–triplet annihilation upconversion (TTA-UC) implemented in nanoparticle assemblies is of emerging interest in biomedical applications, including in drug delivery and imaging. As it is a bimolecular process, ensuring sufficient mobility of the sensitizer and annihilator to facilitate effective collision in the nanoparticle is key. Liposomes can provide the benefits of two-dimensional confinement and condensed concentration of the sensitizer and annihilator along with superior fluidity compared to other nanoparticle assemblies. They are also biocompatible and widely applied across drug delivery modalities. However, there are relatively few liposomal TTA-UC systems reported to date, so systematic studies of the influence of the liposomal environment on TTA-UC are currently lacking. Here, we report the first example of a BODIPY-based sensitizer TTA-UC system within liposomes and use this system to study TTA-UC generation and compare the relative intensity of the anti-Stokes signal for this system as a function of liposome composition and membrane fluidity. We report for the first time on time-resolved spectroscopic studies of TTA-UC in membranes. Nanosecond transient absorption data reveal the BODIPY-perylene dyad sensitizer has a long triplet lifetime in liposome with contributions from three triplet excited states, whose lifetimes are reduced upon coinclusion of the annihilator due to triplet–triplet energy transfer, to a greater extent than in solution. This indicates triplet energy transfer between the sensitizer and the annihilator is enhanced in the membrane system. Molecular dynamics simulations of the sensitizer and annihilator TTA collision complex are modeled in the membrane and confirm the co-orientation of the pair within the membrane structure and that the persistence time of the bound complex exceeds the TTA kinetics. Modeling also reliably predicted the diffusion coefficient for the sensitizer which matches closely with the experimental values from fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. The relative intensity of the TTA-UC output across nine liposomal systems of different lipid compositions was explored to examine the influence of membrane viscosity on upconversion (UC). UC showed the highest relative intensity for the most fluidic membranes and the weakest intensity for highly viscous membrane compositions, including a phase separation membrane. Overall, our study reveals that the co-orientation of the UC pair within the membrane is crucial for effective TTA-UC within a biomembrane and that the intensity of the TTA-UC output can be tuned in liposomal nanoparticles by modifying the phase and fluidity of the liposome. These new insights will aid in the design of liposomal TTA-UC systems for biomedical applications.
Prabhakaran et al. (Wed,) studied this question.