Reaction mechanisms for electrical doping of organic semiconductors using complex dopants

Electrical doping of organic semiconductors (OSCs) can be achieved using simple one-electron reductants and oxidants as n- and p-dopants, respectively, but for such dopants, increased doping strength is accompanied by increased sensitivity to ambient moisture and/or oxygen. “Indirect” or “complex” dopants—defined here as those that generate OSC radical cations or anions via pathways more complex than a single simple electron transfer, i.e., by multistep reactions—represent a means of circumventing this problem. This review highlights the importance of understanding the reaction mechanisms by which such dopants operate for: (i) ensuring a researcher knows the composition of a doped material; (ii) predicting the thermodynamic feasibility of achieving doping with related dopant:OSC combinations; and (iii) predicting whether thermodynamically feasible doping reactions are likely to be rapid or slow, or to require subsequent activation. The mechanistic information available to date for some of the wide variety of complex n- and p-dopants that have been reported is then reviewed, emphasizing that in many cases our knowledge is far from complete.