Farmers' biodiversity knowledge improves natural enemy conservation in agricultural ecosystems.

In the face of dual challenges of sustainable food production and biodiversity conservation, the knowledge gaps of farmers about biodiversity, pests, and their natural enemies can become a crucial barrier to adopting sustainable land management practices. The study aimed to assess farmers' knowledge and understanding of crop pest and natural enemy diversity and their impacts, and whether the adoption of Climate-Smart or Conservation Agriculture (CSA here onwards) was associated with this knowledge. We conducted questionnaire-based interviews and showed biodiversity images, including crop pests and beneficial insects, to understand farmers' knowledge of biodiversity on their farms. A comparison was drawn between farmers practising CSA and non-CSA farmers to understand the role of CSA in enhancing biodiversity knowledge. Farmers facing greater yield losses were aware of pests, but they were less knowledgeable about their natural enemies, and they used fewer conservation management practices. CSA farmers, however, showed more biodiversity knowledge, especially of natural enemies, and they employed a wider range of CS management practices. Farmers' age, experience, education, and training were positively correlated with biodiversity knowledge, leading to better natural enemy conservation and pest management practices. The findings underscore the need for biodiversity-focused capacity building in sustainable agricultural programs, targeting less knowledgeable farming groups. It emphasises the crucial role of farmers' knowledge in developing sustainable and biodiversity-friendly food production systems. Africa, East Usambara Mountains, Food security, Biodiversity conservation, Invertebrates, Crop pests, Climate-Smart Agriculture, Farmer education.