Exploring the digital divide in primary education: A comparative study of urban and rural mathematics teachers’ TPACK and attitudes towards technology integration in post-pandemic China

Abstract This study investigates disparities in Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) and attitudes towards digital technology integration among primary mathematics teachers in urban and rural China. In response to the post-pandemic era’s rapid technological advances, this research highlights the digital divide in primary education. A survey of 366 teachers assessed TPACK proficiency, technology access, professional development, and demographic impact factors like age and gender. The instrument, refined through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and confirmed with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), provided reliable measures. Data analysis employed descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis) to explore differences across demographics. Findings reveal stark contrasts between urban and rural educators. Urban teachers exhibited higher TPACK proficiency and more favourable attitudes towards technology, likely due to enhanced access to resources and professional development. Conversely, rural teachers, challenged by limited access and support, displayed lower proficiency and less positive attitudes. Furthermore, younger teachers showed greater ease with technology integration than older counterparts, with no significant gender differences. The study’s implications highlight the need for tailored professional development in rural areas and equitable policymaking for technology access across all educational environments. These findings illuminate the urban-rural digital divide in China’s primary education and contribute to the global understanding of technology integration in diverse educational settings. Also, this research enriches the academic discourse on technological equity in education, providing a framework for comparative international studies and policy development.