Hypoxia activates macrophage‐NLRP3 inflammasome promoting atherosclerosis via PFKFB3‐driven glycolysis

Abstract The onset and progression of atherosclerosis are closely linked to the involvement of macrophages. While the contribution of NLRP3 inflammasome activation to the creation of a local highly inflammatory microenvironment is well recognized, the precise triggers remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the regulatory mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in response to hypoxia‐induced glycolysis involving PFKFB3 in the development of atherosclerosis. To develop an atherosclerosis model, we selected ApoE knockout mice treated with a high‐fat western diet. We then quantified the expression of HIF‐1α, PFKFB3, and NLRP3. In addition, we administered the PFKFB3 inhibitor PFK158 during atherosclerosis modeling. The glycolytic activity was subsequently determined through 18 F‐FDG micro‐PET/CT, ex vivo glucose uptake, and ECAR analysis. Furthermore, we employed lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and TNF‐α to induce the differentiation of bone marrow‐derived macrophages (BMDMs) into M1‐like phenotypes under both hypoxic and normoxic conditions. Our histological analyses revealed the accumulation of PFKFB3 in human atherosclerotic plaques, demonstrating colocalization with NLRP3 expression and macrophages. Treatment with PFK158 reduced glycolytic activity and NLRP3 inflammasome activation, thereby mitigating the occurrence of atherosclerosis. Mechanistically, hypoxia promoted glycolytic reprogramming and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in BMDMs. Subsequent blocking of either HIF‐1α or PFKFB3 downregulated the NLRP3/Caspase‐1/IL‐1β pathway in hypoxic BMDMs. Our study demonstrated that the HIF‐1α/PFKFB3/NLRP3 axis serves as a crucial mechanism for macrophage inflammation activation in the emergence of atherosclerosis. The therapeutic potential of PFKFB3 inhibition may represent a promising strategy for atheroprotection.