The density paradox: density, walking, and psychological stress in overcrowded public spaces

Physical density, a built environment attribute, has always been a widely discussed and controversial topic in the literature. Debates about physical density are particularly relevant given the renewed interest in communicable diseases (e.g. COVID-19) and social distancing mitigation tactics. In this interdisciplinary article, we discuss the complex relationships of density with people's walking behaviour and psychological stress and propose important steps for future research. The issue of physical density may be critical for human health – while high density provides increased opportunities for physical activity, it may also increase psychological stress. To disentangle the effects of density on walking behaviour and psychological stress, we call for a cautious interpretation of the beneficial effects of high density in previous urban design and health research.